THE  UNIVERSITY 
OF  ILLINOIS 
LIBRARY 

mvm 


geology 


The  person  charging  this  material  is  re- 
sponsible for  its  return  to  the  library  from 
which  it  was  withdrawn  on  or  before  the 
Latest  Date  stamped  below. 

Theft,  mutilation,  and  underlining  of  books  are  reasons 
for  disciplinary  action  and  may  result  in  dismissal  from 
the  University. 

To  renew  call  Telephone  Center,  333-8400 

UNIVERSITY  OF  ILLINOIS  LIBRARY  AT  URBANA-CHAMPAIGN 


L161— 0-1096 


Digitized  by  the  Internet  Archive 
in  2016  with  funding  from 

University  of  Illinois  Urbana-Champaign  Alternates 


https://archive.org/details/studyofforestcon1519holm 


r: 

i 

I 

i 

I 

i 

I 

i 

I 

* 

I 

i 


I 

i 

I 

i 

I 

i 

I 

i 


t 

X 

I 

$ 

I 

l 

I 

i 

I 

i 

I 

* 

I 

i 

I 

l 

I 

$ 

I 

i 

I 

i 

I 

f 

l; 


Mississippi 

State  Geological  Survey 

ALBERT  F.  CRIDER,  DIRECTOR. 


1 

i 


BULLETIN  NO.  1 


i 

I 

t 

I 

i 


Cement  and  Portland  Cement 
Materials  of  Mississippi 

By  ALBERT  F.  CRIDER 


NASHVILLE 

BRANDON  PRINTING  COMPANY 
1907 


'V) 


•H* 


>♦♦♦ 


>W< 


>444' 


>444—444' 


s 


s 

I 

x 

x 


I 

* 

I 

i 

I 

I 

i 

I 

* 

I 

i 

I 

i 

I 

i 

I 

i 


i 


N.H.U 


STATE  GEOLOGICAL  COMMISSION. 

His  Excellency,  James  K.  Vardaman Governor 

Dunbar  Rowland Director  of  Archives  and  History 

A.  A.  Kincannon Chancellor  of  the  State  University 

j c Hardy President  Agricultural  and  Mechanical  College 

Joe  N.  Powers State  Superintendent  of  Education 


GEOLOGICAL  CORPS. 


Albert  F.  Crider 

Dr.  William  N.  Logan 
Dr.  Calvin  S.  Brown. 


Director 

Assistant  Geologist 
Assistant  Geologist 


o 


* 

< LETTER  OF  TRANSMITTAL. 

Jackson,  Miss.,  July  20,  1907. 

To  Governor  James  K.  Var daman,  Chairman , and  Members  of  the 
Geological  Commission: 

Gentlemen — I submit  herewith  my  report  on  Cement  and  Port- 
land Cement  Materials  of  Mississippi. 

Very  respectfully, 

Albert  F.  Crider, 

Director. 


i 


O 


F1 


TABLE  OF  CONTENTS. 


PAGE 

Letter  of  transmittal 3 

List  of  tables 7 

List  of  illustrations 9 

Acknowledgments 10 

Introduction 11 

Early  history  of  the  Portland  cement  industry 12 

Present  condition  of  the  industry  in  the  United  States 12 

Cement  industry  in  the  South 15 

Classification  of  cements 16 

Simple  cements 16 

Hydrate  cements 16 

Carbonate  cements 16 

Complex  cements 17 

Natural  cement  17 

Puzzolan  cement 18 

Portland  cement 19 

Raw  materials  of  Portland  cement 21 

Argillaceous  limestone 21 

Hard  pure  limestone 22 

Chalk 23 

Fresh-water  marl 24 

Oyster  shells 25 

Alkali  waste 25 

Slag.: 26 

Clay  27 

Shale 27 

Slate 28 

Methods  of  Portland  cement  manufacture 28 

Preparing  and  grinding  the  raw  materials 28 

Dry  process 29 

Wet  process 31 

Preparing  slag  for  cement 31 


CONTENTS. 


5 


Methods  of  Portland  Cement  Manufacture— Continued. 

Burning 

Fuels 

Coal 

Oil 

Natural  gas 

Producer  gas 

Grinding  the  clinker 

Retarder  for  quick-setting  cements 

Portland  cement  materials  of  Mississippi 

General  geology 

Devonian 

Carboniferous 

Cretaceous 

Tuscaloosa  clays 

Selma  chalk 

Thickness 

Distribution 

Corinth  and  vicinity 

Booneville  and  vicinity 

Tupelo  and  vicinity 

Okolona  and  vicinity 

Starkville  and  vicinity 

Macon  and  vicinity 

Available  clays  in  and  adjacent  to  the  Selma  area.. 

Residual  Selma  clays 

Porter’s  Creek  clay 

Jackson  formation 

Distribution 

Yazoo  City 

Jackson  

Vicksburg  formation 

Distribution 

Vicksburg 

Byram 

Plain 

Brandon 

Bay  Spring 


PAGE 

32 

32 

32 

34 

34 

34 

35 

36 
36 

36 

37 

38 
40 
40 
40 

42 

43 
43 

45 

46 

48 

49 

50 
54 

54 

55 
57 
57 

57 

58 

59 

60 
60 
63 

63 

64 

65 


6 


CONTENTS. 


PAGE 

Advantageous  locations  for  cement  plants  in  Mississippi 68 

Tishomingo  County 68 

Starkville  and  West  Point 68 

Columbus 69 

Jackson  and  vicinity 69 

Vicksburg 70 

Index 71 

Map 00 


LIST  OF  TABLES, 


PAGE 

1.  Production  of  Portland  cement  in  the  United  States  in  1903, 

1904  and  1905,  by  States 14 

2.  Analyses  of  natural  cement  rock  used  in  American  and 

European  plants 18 

3.  Analyses  of  American  Portland  cements 20 

4.  Analyses  of  argillaceous  hard  limestones,  “cement  rock,”  used 

in  American  cement  plants 22 

5.  Analyses  of  chalk  used  in  American  cement  plants 24 

6.  Analyses  of  marls  used  in  American  cement  plants 25 

7.  Analysis  of  oyster  shells  from  Biloxi 25 

8.  Analyses  of  alkali  waste 26 

9.  Analysis  of  slag  used  in  German  Portland  cement  plants ....  26 

10.  Analyses  of  kiln  coals 33 

11.  Analyses  of  Mississippi  lignites '.  . 35 

12.  Analyses  of  Devonian  limestone,  Tishomingo  County 38 

13.  Analyses  of  Carboniferous  limestones  and  shale,  Tishomingo 

County 39 

14.  Analyses  of  Tuscaloosa  clays  of  Mississippi 40 

15.  Analysis  of  Selma  limestone  from  Corinth 44 

16.  Analysis  of  Selma  limestone  2J  miles  south  of  Tupelo 47 

17.  Analysis  of  Selma  limestone  1 mile  west  of  Tupelo 47 

18.  Analyses  of  Selma  limestone  from  Okolona 49 

19.  Analyses  of  Selma  limestone  from  Oktibbeha  County 50 

20.  Analyses  of  Selma  limestone  from  Oktibbeha  County 50 

21.  Analyses  of  Selma  limestone  from  Macon 51 

22.  Analysis  of  Selma  limestone  from  3 miles  north  of  Macon. ...  51 

23.  Analysis  of  Selma  limestone  from  Prairie  Rock 52 

24.  Analysis  of  Selma  limestone  from  Crawford 52 

25.  Analysis  of  clay  from  Crawford 53 

26.  Analysis  of  Selma  limestone  from  5 miles  east  of  Shuqualak.  53 

27.  Analyses  of  Selma  limestone  from  Kemper  County 53 

28.  Analyses  of  Selma  limestone  used  at  the  Alabama  Portland 

cement  plant,  Demopolis 54 


8 


LIST  OF  TABLES. 


PAGE 

29.  Analysis  of  residual  clay  from  Uniontown,  Ala 55 

30.  Analyses  of  residual  Selma  clays  from  Mississippi 55 

31.  Analysis  of  residual  Porter’s  Creek  clay  from  1 mile  west  of 

Starkville 56 

32.  Analyses  of  Porter’s  Creek  clay 56 

33.  Analysis  of  Porter’s  Creek  clay  from  Scooba 56 

34.  Analysis  of  Jackson  marl-clay  from  Yazoo  City 58 

34a.  Analyses  of  Jackson  marl  and  clay,  1 mile  south  of  Jackson . . 58 

35.  Analyses  of  Vicksburg  limestone  and  marls  from  Vicksburg. . 61 

36.  Analyses  of  Vicksburg  limestone  and  marls  from  Vicksburg. . 62 

37.  Composition  of  actual  mixes  used  in  American  cement  plants . 62 

38.  Analyses  of  Vicksburg  limestone  and  marl  from  Byram 63 

39.  Analyses  of  Vicksburg  limestone  and  marls  from  near  Plain.  . 64 

40.  Analyses  of  Vicksburg  limestone  from  Robinson  quarry,  4 

miles  southeast  of  Brandon 65 

41.  Analyses  of  Vicksburg  limestone  from  near  Nancy,  Clarke 

County 66 

42.  Analyses  of  Vicksburg  limestone  from  Red  Hill,  Wayne 

County 67 


LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS. 


Plate  page 

I.  Selma  chalk  bluff,  Macon 50 

II.  Lafayette  and  residual  clay  overlying  Selma  chalk.  Macon  . . 52 

III.  Bluff  at  Vicksburg  showing  Vicksburg  limestone 60 

IV.  Ledge  of  Vicksburg  limestone,  Clinton 62 

V.  Vicksburg  limestone  on  Pearl  River,  Byram 64 

VI.  Vicksburg  limestone,  Robinson  quarry,  near  Rankin 66 


ACKNOWLEDGMENTS. 


In  the  preparation  of  this  report  the  author  is  under  many  obliga- 
tions to  Drs.  William  N.  Logan  and  Calvin  S.  Brown,  of  the  State 
Survey,  for  collecting  samples  of  limestones  and  clays,  and  for  other 
valuable  assistance. 

The  credit  of  the  chemical  analyses,  unless  otherwise  stated  in  the 
report,  belongs  to  Dr.  W.  F.  Hand,  State  Chemist,  Agricultural  Col- 
lege. 

The  author  is  indebted  to  Mr.  D.  L.  Mitchell,  of  Biloxi,  Miss.,  for 
reading  the  manuscript  and  offering  valuable  suggestions. 

In  the  discussion  of  the  technology  and  manufacture  of  cements 
the  various  works  of  Mr.  E.  C.  Eckel,  of  the  United  States  Geological 
Survey,  have  been  freely  used. 


CEMENT  AND  PORTLAND  CEMENT  MATERIALS 
OF  MISSISSIPPI. 


By  Albert  F.  Crider. 


INTRODUCTION. 

The  growth  oi  almost  every  line  of  the  mining  industry  in  America 
in  the  last  decade  has  been  most  phenomenal.  The  mineral  produc- 
tion of  the  United  States  for  1905,  the  latest  year  for  which  complete 
official  returns  are  available,  was  $1,623,877,120.  Of  this  amount 
$921,024,019  was  contributed  by  the  non-metallics,  and  $702,453,101 
by  the  metallics. 

The  value  of  Portland  cement  products  is  surpassed  only  by  iron, 
gold,  copper,  coal,  oil  and  stone.  In  its  importance  to  the  advance- 
ment of  the  present  civilization  it  is  surpassed  only  by  iron,  coal  and 
oil.  Its  per  cent  of  increase  in  production  and  consumption  since 
1890  is  greater  than  any  mineral  mined  in  the  United  States. 

Until  1905  the  amount  of  Portland  cement  imported  into  the 
United  States  was  greater  than  the  amount  exported.  In  1891  the 
amount  of  production  was  454,813  barrels,  and  the  amount  imported 
was  2,998,313  barrels.  In  1905  the  amount  imported  had  been  reduced 
to  896,845  barrels,  and  the  amount  exported  was  897,686  barrels. 

Some  sections  of  the  United  States  have  not  been  able  to  secure 
all  the  cement  they  could  use,  and  there  is  an  increasing  demand 
for  our  cement  in  foreign  countries,  especially  in  the  Central  and  South 
American  States,  and  the  West  Indies.  But  before  we  need  to  exploit 
fields  outside  of  the  United  States  for  our  cement  we  must  create  a 
surplus  over  and  above  the  amount  consumed  at  home.  But  with 
the  increase  in  production  due  to  the  erection  of  new  plants  and  the 
enlargement  of  the  old  ones  comes  new  demands  for  cement  as  a 
structural  material  from  every  section  of  the  country. 

No  section  of  the  United  States  is  advancing  quite  so  rapidly  as 
the  South.  The  advance  in  the  manufacture  of  cements  has  not  kept 


12 


CEMENT  MATERIALS. 


pace  with  the  progress  in  other  lines  of  industry,  and  for  this  reason 
the  South  offers  practically  an  open  field  to  the  cement  manufacturer. 
And  in  no  section  of  the  South  is  this  more  evident  than  in  Mississippi 
where,  at  present,  there  is  not  a single  cement  plant.  The  object  of 
this  report  is  to  point  out  the  geographical  distribution,  the  available 
amount  and  the  quality  of  cement  materials,  and  call  attention  to  the 
economic  advantages  offered  for  the  erection  of  cement  plants  within 
the  State. 

EARLY  HISTORY  OF  THE  PORTLAND  CEMENT  INDUSTRY. 

Portland  cement  was  first  made  in  1824  by  Joseph  Aspdin,  a brick- 
layer in  Leeds,  England.  The  name  “Portland”  was  chosen  because 
of  the  resemblance  of  the  cement  to  the  oolitic  limestone  of  Portland, 
England.  The  limestone  is  extensively  used  in  England  as  a road 
metal  and  building  stone. 

The  first  cement  was  made  by  taking  a specific  quantity  of  road 
scrapings  from  roads  repaired  with  the  oolitic  limestone  and  reduced 
to  a powder  and  calcined.  The  calcined  material  was  then  combined 
with  a specific  quantity  of  argillaceous  earth  or  clay,  mixed  with  water, 
and  the  mixture  placed  in  a pan  and  heated  until  all  the  water  was 
evaporated.  After  this  the  mixture  was  broken  into  small  lumps  and 
calcined  in  a furnace  similar  to  a lime  kiln  till  the  carbonic  acid  was 
entirely  expelled.  It  was  then  cooled  and  reduced  to  a powder  which 
had  the  power  of  setting  when  mixed  with  water. 

Aspdin ’s  original  patent  did  not  specify  the  percentages  of  lime- 
stone and  clay  in  the  mixture,  and  he  also  omitted  to  state  that  the 
mixture  should  be  burned  until  incipient  vitrification  is  attained. 
In  the  absence  of  machinery  for  grinding  the  hard  limestone,  he  was 
forced  to  calcine  it  before  it  was  mixed  with  the  clay. 

From  this  crude  beginning  has  developed  one  of  the  greatest 
industries  of  building  material  of  modem  times. 

PRESENT  CONDITION  OF  THE  INDUSTRY  IN  THE  UNITED 

STATES. 

The  Portland  cement  industry  has  had  a more  marvelous  growth 
than  any  other  large  industry  of  this  era.  It  came  at  a most  oppor- 
tune time  in  the  development  of  the  country.  It  has  prolonged  the 


PRESENT  CONDITION  OF  INDUSTRY. 


13 


life  of  lumber  and  supplemented  iron  and  steel.  It  has  become  one 
of  the  leading  and  most  substantial  products  for  general  construction 
work  where  strength,  durability  and  economy  are  required.  It  is 
used  alone,  or  as  a reinforcement  in  the  construction  of  bridges,  busi- 
ness and  dwelling  houses,  aqueducts,  sewers,  pavements,  large  founda- 
tion walls  and  dikes  such  as  the  Galveston  wall,  docks,  wharves  and 
levee  work;  besides  in  many  minor  ways,  such  as  in  making  fence 
posts,  telegraph  poles,  railway  ties,  monuments,  and  in  various  other 
lines  of  construction  work. 

The  output  of  Portland  cement  in  the  United  States  in  1890  was 
only  335,500  barrels.  In  1900  it  had  reached  8,482,020.  The  most 
rapid  growth  of  the  industry  was  between  1900  and  1905.  Prelimi- 
nary figures  in  1906,  announced  by  the  United  States  Geological  Survey, 
show  that  46,463,424  barrels  were  produced,  valued  at  $52,446,186. 
This  is  even  a greater  increase  in  output  and  in  value  than  that  of 
the  previous  year. 

The  following  table  shows  the  amount  and  value  of  Portland 
cement  produced  in  the  different  States  where  this  article  was  man- 
ufactured in  1903,  1904  and  1905: 


TABLE  1. 

PRODUCTION  OF  PORTLAND  CEMENT  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES  IN  1903,  1904  AND  1905,  BY  STATES. t 

[Barrels.] 


14 


CEMENT  MATERIALS. 


If 

a s 

^ ‘o' 


CO  b- 
r-,  04 

00  o 


lO  CO 
04  00 
04  t" 


O 05 
lO  -h 
i-4  04 
'-I'  TJ4* 
^4  CO 

O-  rH 


© 04 
O Nf 

iq  o 
O r>T 


N ^ 00  CO  H O 
O S O IQ  00 
IQ  Cl  N 04  ^ O 


0-  O CO  H 

04*  04*  r-4  rH 


n 04  N H N t» 
00  If  h H N 00 
04  O N if  O if 


04  X X 04  r- i CO 


os  t'- 
O CO 
05  rH 
CO*  00* 
1*4  CO 
Tj4  CO 


X ^4 
O OC 
1C  04 


■f  h « 

rH  t>.  1-H 

h o e 

05*  04*  rf 
"S'  CO  CO 
^ 04  1-1 


C-  t'- 
*-o  X 
04  05 


04  »—t  X 


05  iJ4  ^ C5 

H H O!  O) 

if  iq  04  © 
05*  04*  O CO* 
05  CO  rl  05 
CO  05 


K3^404hc004C0HNN 


s 1 

a s 


04  IQ 
lO  CO 
CO  LO 


1—4  CO 
lO  O- 
1-H  C- 


o © 

O O)  H 

iq  rq  cq 

rJ4*  t>-‘  lO 
If  00 
05  CO  04 


O N 04 
O CO  X 

»q  rH  cq 

f-*  tC  05* 
IONH 
04  O O 


o If4  Tj4  o O 04 

X X © rH  © 05 

c-  X cq  cq  cq  X 

"tf*  TJ4*  tJ4*  rH  x*  IT) 

CO  tJ4  CO  C5  O 

cq  i-4  os  © 05  cq 

04*  i—4*  04*  04*  1-4* 


X -H  © 05  CO 

X © X 1*4  rH  rH 

1-4  cq  cq  05  io  cq 

K5  IQ  CO*  04  05  If 

X 04  05  O 04  lO 

05  x cq  cq  i> 

1—4^  04*  rH*  05* 


•I  111 


3 .co  g 

CD  S V?  2 .2 

•§  # 3 £ o -S  -3 


S % * 

•c  S ° 

g^>4 

52  £ £ 


a £ 
> /S 


C 53 
G 0 
_4)  o 


G G 

° '& 
_ to  .3 
.2  G > 

.SgC 

bO  eg  co 


tMineral  Resources  of  the  United  States,  1905,  U.  S.  Geological  Survey,  p.  926.  *Shut  down. 

(а)  Total  amount  combined  and  given  with  Virginia. 

(б)  Total  amount  combined  and  given  with  Kansas. 

( c ) Total  amount  combined  and  given  with  Colorado. 


INDUSTRY  IN  THE  SOUTH. 


15 


New  plants  are  reported  to  be  in  process  of  construction  or  com- 
pleted in  the  following  States: 

Iowa,  2 plants. 

Oregon,  1 plant. 

Wisconsin,  2 plants. 

Tennessee,  1 plant. 

Alabama,  2 plants. 

Georgia,  1 plant. 

The  total  number  of  Portland  cement  plants  in  the  United  States 
at  the  present  time  approaches  the  one  hundred  mark. 

CEMENT  INDUSTRY  IN  THE  SOUTH. 

Of  the  whole  number  of  plants  in  the  United  States  there  are  but 
8 in  the  South  producing  cement,  and  about  4 new  plants  under 
construction.  According  to  the  latest  official  report  the  South  pro- 
duces less  than  4 per  cent  of  the  total  amount  of  Portland  cement 
manufactured  in  the  United  States.  This,  added  to  the  fact  that 
the  South  is  growing  more  rapidly  than  any  other  section  of  the 
country,  gives  a promising  outlook  for  the  development  of  the  cement 
industry.  There  should  be  a large  number  of  plants  located  in  various 
sections  of  the  South  to  equalize  the  output  in  the  United  States; 
at  least  a sufficient  number  to  supply  the  local  demands. 

At  present  Mississippi  is  dependent  upon  the  cement  plants  of 
Alabama  and  other  States  for  cement.  There  is  a wide  field  in  Missis- 
sippi for  the  development  of  this  important  industry.  With  an 
abundance  of  excellent  raw  materials  favorably  located,  as  at  Vicks- 
burg where  coal  is  cheap  and  with  railway  and  water  transportation, 
there  is  no  reason  why  Mississippi  should  not  enter  the  field  as  a 
cement-producing  State  and  supply  a large  amount  of  the  increasing 
demand  in  the  middle  South.  The  erection  of  a plant  in  this  unde- 
veloped territory  would  be  a paying  investment,  and  would  ultimately 
cheapen  the  product  to  the  consumers. 

It  has  been  reported  by  government  authorities  that  the  construc- 
tion of  some  of  the  locks  of  the  Panama  Canal  will  require  about 
92,000  carloads  of  cement.  This  amount  equals  about  one-fourth  of  the 
output  of  all  the  cement  plants  in  the  United  States  for  1905.  There 
is  an  ever  increasing  demand  for  cement  in  the  United  States  as  shown 


16 


CEMENT  MATERIALS. 


by  the  fact  that  during  1905  over  35,000,000  barrels  were  used,  besides 
896,845  barrels  shipped  in  from  other  countries.  While  the  Panama 
Canal  trade  may  appeal  to  some  of  the  factories  of  the  United  States, 
there  is  not  a sufficient  number  of  plants  in  the  South  at  the  present 
time  to  supply  the  increasing  local  demand. 

CLASSIFICATION  OF  CEMENTS.* 

Cements  may  be  classified  under  two  general  heads,  Simple  cements 
and  Complex  cements. 


SIMPLE  CEMENTS. 

Simple  cements  are  those  in  which  the  setting  properties  are 
similar  to  the  original  raw  material.  Under  this  class  come  (1) 
hydrate  cements  and  (2)  carbonate  cements. 

(1)  Hydrate  Cements. — Hydrate  cements  include  those  cements  in 
which  the  water  of  combination  from  certain  rocks  has  been  driven 
off  by  heat  not  exceeding  a temperature  of  400°  Fahrenheit,  and 
which  upon  the  reabsorption  of  water  produce  an  artificial  rock  sim- 
ilar to  the  original. 

The  hydrate  cements  are  “Plaster  of  Paris,”  “Keene’s  cement,” 
“Parian  cement”  and  “Cement  plaster.”  They  are  all  manufactured 
from  gypsum  and  differ  from  each  other  only  in  the  addition  of  rela- 
tively small  amounts  of  clay,  limestone,  sand  and  other  materials; 
or  by  slight  variations  in  the  methods  of  manufacture. 

(2)  Carbonate  Cements. — Carbonate  cements  are  formed  from  lime- 
stone by  dissociating  and  driving  off  the  carbon  dioxide  (C02)  and 
the  water  of  combination  by  the  application  of  heat  at  a temperature 
between  1,382°  F.  and  1,652°  F.,  leaving  behind  “quicklime”  or 
unslaked  lime  (CaO).  “Quicklime”  on  being  treated  with  water 
expands  and  gives  off  heat,  forming  the  hydrated  calcium  oxide  or 
slaked  lime  (Ca  H20). 

The  cementing  qualities  are  imparted  to  the  hydrated  calcium 
oxide  on  the  reabsorption  of  carbon  dioxide  from  the  air,  forming 
the  original  calcium  carbonate  or  limestone.  Only  the  outer  portions 
of  the  walls  are  thoroughly  recarbonated,  since  the  reabsorption  of 
the  carbon  dioxide  can  only  take  place  where  the  material  is  exposed 

*In  the  treatment  of  this  subject  the  writer  has  followed  E.  C.  Eckel  in  Limes,  Cements  and 
Plasters. 


COMPLEX  CEMENTS. 


17 


to  the  air.  The  products  of  carbonate  cements  are  calcium  and 
magnesian  limes.  It  requires  a higher  degree  of  temperature  to  dis- 
sociate a relatively  pure  limestone  than  one  containing  a high  per  cent 
of  magnesium,  and  the  resulting  quicklime  slakes  more  readily  and 
has  a quicker  set.  The  magnesian  limes  have  a slower  set,  but  attain 
a higher  degree  of  strength. 

COMPLEX  CEMENTS. 

In  the  manufacture  or  in  the  use  of  complex  cements  certain 
chemical  changes  take  place  forming  new  compounds  which  impart 
the  setting  properties  to  the  cement.  In  this  class  come  natural 
cements,  Puzzolan  cements,  hydraulic  limes,  and  Portland  cement. 
In  all  of  these  the  cementing  quality  is  imparted  by  calcium  oxide  in 
the  presence  of  silica  and  alumina  approaching  a tri-calcic  silicate. 
There  are,  however,  certain  natural  or  added  impurities  in  the  lime- 
stone and  clays  or  shales  to  form  various  lime  silicates  and  silico- 
aluminates.  The  most  common  impurities  formed"  in  limestones, 
clays  and  shales  are  iron,  magnesia,  alkalies  and  sulphur.  Calcium 
sulphate  is  added  to  some  cements  to  retard  the  set.  The  impurities 
act  as  a flux  upon  the  body  of  the  materials  and  greatly  reduce  the 
temperature  of  incipient  fusion. 

Natural  Cement. 

Natural  cement  is  produced  by  burning  an  impure  limestone  con- 
taining from  15  to  40  per  cent  of  silica,  alumina  and  iron  oxide.  In 
addition  to  these  ingredients  it  usually  contains  a small  per  cent  of 
alkalies,  sulphur  trioxide  and  water. 

The  temperature  required  for  burning  hydraulic  limestone  is  about 
the  same  as  that  obtained  in  burning  lime,  or  between  900°  to  1,300°  F. 
All  the  combined  water  and  most  of  the  carbon  dioxide  are  driven  off 
and  the  lime  and  magnesia  combine  with  the  iron  oxide,  silica  and 
alumina.  The  fluxing  properties,  such  as  soda  and  potassium,  aid 
in  decomposing  these  ingredients.  The  burned  product  shows  little 
or  no  free  lime. 

The  burned  mass  or  clinker  is  ground  to  a fine  powder,  which  has 
the  power  of  setting  when  placed  under  water. 

Natural  cements  differ  from  common  lime  in  possessing  hydraulic 
properties  and  refusing  to  slake  before  grinding.  They  differ  from 


18 


CEMENT  MATERIALS. 


Portland  cements  in  not  being  a mechanical  mixture  of  raw  materials 
possessing  definite  chemical  constituents.  They  have  a specific  gravity 
which  ranges  from  2.7  to  2.9;  while  Portland  cement  has  a specific 
gravity  from  3.0  to  3.2.  Natural  cements  are  burned  at  a lower 
temperature,  have  a quicker  set,  and  a much  lower  ultimate  strength 
than  the  true  Portland  cements. 

Magnesia  is  found  in  comparatively  large  quantities  in  the  raw 
materials  used  in  the  natural  cement  plants  in  the  United  States. 
It  does  not,  however,  possess  any  hydraulic  properties  within  itself, 
and  could  be  easily  exchanged  for  lime  without  affecting  the  quality 
of  the  cement.  The  hydraulic  properties  are  imparted  to  the  lime- 
stone by  the  clayey  materials,  the  silica,  and  the  iron  oxide. 

The  following  are  analyses  of  natural  cement  rock  now  in  use  in 
American  and  European  natural  cement  plants: 


TABLE  2. 

ANALYSES  OF  NATURAL  CEMENT  ROCK  USED  IN  AMERICAN  AND  EUROPEAN 

PLANTS.* 


Si02 

! ai2o3 

Fe203 

CaO 

MgO 

S03 

| co2 

H*0 

S 

Rosendale,  N.  Y 

10.90 

3.40 

2.28 

29.57 

14.04 

0.61 

37.90 

n.d. 

n.d. 

Milton,  N.  D 

14.00 

6.70 

37.60 

n.d. 

0.58 

n.d. 

n.d. 

1.45 

Defiance,  Ohio 

42.00 

7.00 

7.10 

9.91 

5.81 

n.d. 

14.18 

14.00 

Copley,  Pa 

18.34 

7 

49 

37.60 

1.38 

n.d. 

31.06 

3.94 

Balcony  Falls,  Va 

17.38 

7.80 

34.23 

9.51 

n.d. 

30.40 

n.d. 

n.d. 

Milwaukee,  Wis 

17.00 

4.25 

1.25 

24.64 

11.90 

n.d. 

32.46 

n.d. 

Mankato,  Minn.t 

16.00 

5.85 

2.73 

22.40 

14.99 

n.d. 

34.11 

n.d. 

n.d. 

Fort  Scott,  Kan 

17.26 

2.05 

5.45 

34.45 

5.28 

n.d. 

32.87 

n.d. 

n.d. 

Utica,  111 

17.01 

3.35 

2.39 

32.85 

8.45 

1.81 

34 .1 2 

Louisville,  Ky 

9.80 

2.03 

1.40 

29.40 

16.70 

n.d. 

41.49! 

n.d. 

n.d. 

Belgium 

15.75 

3.95 

1.00 

43.10 

0.49 

0.50 

35.21 

n.d. 

England J 

18.00 

6.60 

3.70 

39.64 

0.10 

n.d. 

29.46 

1.30 

n.d. 

Puzzolan  Cement. 

The  process  of  making  Puzzolan  cement  was  known  to  the  ancients, 
and  was  named  from  its  use  at  Puzzolano,  Italy. 

It  is  produced  from  an  un calcined  mixture  of  slaked  lime  and  a 
silico-aluminous  material,  such  as  volcanic  ash,  or  blast-furnace  slag. 
The  process  is  simply  a mechanical  mixture  of  the  two  materials. 


♦Cements,  Limes  and  Plasters,  E.  C.  Eckel,  1905,  pp.  204-217. 
t Alkalies  0.76. 


PORTLAND  CEMENT. 


19 


The  ingredients  are  thoroughly  mixed  and  ground  to  a fine  powder, 
which  will  set  under  water.  The  per  cent  of  lime  and  slag  used  in 
the  mixture  is  about  35  parts  of  slaked  lime  to  100  parts  of  slag. 
Puzzolan  cements  are  of  a lighter  color,  have  a lower  specific  gravity 
and  a much  lower  set  than  Portland  cements. 

Portland  Cement. 

There  are  at  present  many  different  kinds  of  cements  manufactured 
and  sold  as  Portland  cements.  Some  of  these  are  made  by  burning 
a natural  magnesian,  argillaceous  limestone  and  grinding  it  to  a 
powder.  According  to  the  best  authorities,  however,  on  the  manu- 
facture of  cements,  these  would  be  excluded  from  the  list  of  true 
Portlands.  The  following  definition,*  perhaps,  comes  near  fulfill- 
ing all  the  conditions  of  the  best  Portland  cements: 

“By  the  term  Portland  cement,  is  to  be  understood  the  product 
obtained  by  finely  pulverizing  clinker  produced  by  burning  to  semi- 
fusion an  intimate  artificial  mixture  of  finely  ground  calcareous  and 
argillaceous  materials,  this  mixture  consisting  approximately  of  three 
parts  of  lime  carbonate  (or  an  equivalent  amount  of  lime  oxide)  to 
one  part  of  silica,  alumina,  and  iron  oxide.  The  ratio  of  lime  (CaO) 
in  the  cement  to  the  silica,  alumina,  and  iron  oxide  together  shall  not 
be  less  than  1.6  to  1,  or  more  than  2.3  to  1.” 

Prom  the  above  definition  it  is  evident  that  all  cements  produced 
by  burning  argillaceous  limestones  without  grinding  the  mixture  before 
burning  are  excluded  from  the  list  of  true  Portland  cements. 

To  bum  the  materials  to  a semi-fused  mass  requires  a temperature 
of  something  like  3,000°  F.  This  can  only  be  obtained  in  kilns  made 
especially  for  this  purpose. 

The  chemical  changes  which  take  place  in  the  kiln  are,  first,  the 
expulsion  of  the  mechanically  held  water,  which  is  driven  off  at  a 
temperature  of  212°  F. ; second,  the  dissociation  of  the  lime  carbonate 
at  about  1,300°  F.,  setting  free  carbon  dioxide  and  sulphur  trioxide 
third,  at  about  2,600°  F.  and  above,  clinkering  takes  place,  the  silica 
and  alumina  are  decomposed,  and  the  lime  oxide,  silica,  alumina  and 
iron  oxide  combine,  forming  silicates,  aluminates  and  ferrites  of  lime 
in  definite  proportions. 

♦Cements,  Limes  and  Plasters,  E.  C.  Eckel,  p.  297. 


20 


CEMENT  MATERIALS. 


The  semi-fused  mass  when  finely  pulverized  will  set  under  water. 
The  specific  gravity  of  Portland  cement  is  from  3.0  to  3.2. 

The  chemical  composition  of  Portland  cement  varies  within  cer- 
tain limits.  The  first  Portlands  manufactured  in  England  were  low 
in  lime  oxide.  Some  of  the  earliest  brands  ran  as  low  as  50  per  cent 
in  lime.  The  best  brands  now  manufactured  in  the  United  States 
have  a general  average  of  about  62  per  cent  of  lime  oxide.  In  an 
investigation  of  81  analyses  of  American  brands,  the  maximum 
amount  of  lime  oxide  was  about  65.44  per  cent,  and  the  minimum 
amount  58.07  per  cent.  The  amount  of  silica  varied  from  about  19 
per  cent  to  24  per  cent,  with  a general  average  of  about  21.75  per 
cent.  The  amount  of  alumina  and  iron  oxide  together  varied  from 
6 per  cent  to  13.5  per  cent  with  a general  average  of  about  10.5  per 
cent.  The  amount  of  magnesia  varied  from  a trace  to  3.5  per  cent. 
The  greatest  amount  of  alkalies  was  2.25  per  cent.  The  amount  of 
sulphur  trioxide  varied  from  a fraction  of  1 per  cent  to  2.786  per  cent. 


TABLE  3. 


ANALYSES  OF  AMERICAN  PORTLAND  CEMENTS.* 


1 

2 

3 4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

10  1 

11 

12 

Silica  (SiOj) 

20.14 

22.48 

20.80  22.04 

21.20 

19.92 

21.96 

22.00l22.00 

22.50 

20.25 

8 

i 

Alumina  (AI2O3) 

7.51 

6.52 

7.39  6.45 

6.05 

9.83 

9.29' 

l Q 74., 

[7.74 

8.35' 

l 19  A A. 

f 7.50 

Iron  oxide  (Fe2C>3) . . . 

3.33 

4.46 

2.61  3.41 

3.33 

I 2.63 

i 2.67 

\ 4.61 

4.25 

/ lO 

\ 2.40 

Lime  oxide  (CaO) .... 

62.71 

62.93 

64.00  60.92 

58.07 

60.32 

60.52 

62.34 

59.50 

62.35 

63.60 

62  00 

Magmpsia  (MgO) 

2.34 

1.48 

n.d.  3.53 

2.80 

3.12 

3.43 

2.54 

0.90 

1.03 

2.50 

Alkalies  (K2O  Na20) 

2.20 

1.20 

Sulphur  trioxide  (SO3) 

1.64 

1.30 

n.d.i  2.73 

1.13 

1.49 

1.40 

0.80 

1.75 

0.41 

1.50 

1.  Edison  Portland  Cement  Co.,  New  Jersey. 

2.  Catskill  Portland  Cement  Co.,  New  York. 

3.  Empire  Portland  Cement  Co.,  New  York. 

4.  Empire  Portland  Cement  Co.,  New  York. 

5.  Buckeye  Portland  Cement  Co.,  Ohio. 

6.  American  Portland  Cement  Co.,  Pennsylvania. 

7.  Atlas  Portland  Cement  Co.,  Pennsylvania. 

8.  Lehigh  Portland  Cement  Co.,  Pennsylvania. 

9.  Western  Portland  Cement  Co.,  South  Dakota. 

10.  Texas  Portland  Cement  Co.,  Texas. 

11.  Alabama  Portland  Cement  Co.,  Alabama. 

12.  Michigan  Portland  Cement  Co.,  Michigan. 


♦Cements,  Limes  and  Plasters,  E.  C.  Eckel,  1905,  pp.  577  to  579. 


RAW  MATERIALS. 


21 


RAW  MATERIALS  OF  PORTLAND  CEMENT. 

The  principal  constituents  which  enter  into  the  manufacture  of 
Portland  cement  are  lime,  silica,  alumina  and  iron  oxide.  These 
materials  are  found  widespread  in  nature  and  occur  in  various  com- 
binations, especially  in  sedimentary  rocks.  It  is  from  these  rocks 
the  necessary  constituents  are  found  for  making  Portland  and  natural 
cements.  Lime  is  found  in  argillaceous  limestones,  hard  pure  lime- 
stones, chalks,  marls,  oyster  shells,  alkali  waste  and  blast-furnace  slags. 
Silica,  alumina  and  iron  oxide  are  found  principally  in  clays,  shales 
and  slates,  although  they  all  frequently  occur  in  greater  or  less  quan- 
tities in  limestones.  A limestone  may  vary  in  composition  from  pure 
calcium  carbonate  (CaC03),  calcite,  to  a rock  containing  an  increasing 
amount  of  clay  or  sand,  until  the  name  limestone  is  no  longer  appli- 
cable. There  is  a regular  gradation  from  a pure  limestone  to  a pure 
clay  or  sand.  It  is  possible,  therefore,  to  find  a rock  in  nature, 
in  small  quantities  at  least,  which  would  contain  the  exact  proportions 
of  lime,  silica,  alumina  and  iron  oxide  for  a Portland  cement.  It  is 
hardly  probable,  however,  that  such  a rock  would  occur  in  large 
quantities. 

ARGILLACEOUS  LIMESTONE. 

A limestone  containing  a relatively  large  amount  of  clayey  material 
in  chemical  combination  with  lime  is  called  an  argillaceous  limestone. 
It  has  been  formed  at  the  bottom  of  an  open  or  inland  sea  by  cal- 
careous remains  of  small  invertebrate  organisms,  in  the  presence  of 
sediments  carried  by  streams  from  the  shore.  The  purest  limestones 
are  formed  at  too  great  a distance  from  the  shore  to  receive  any 
accumulation  of  sediments.  Owing  to  the  constant  agitation  of  the 
water  near  the  shore  sandstones  and  clays  have  but  little  or  no  organic 
remains.  The  argillaceous  limestones,  therefore,  represent  an  inter- 
mediate stage  between  the  pure  limestones  and  the  non-calcareous 
near-shore  deposits. 

There  is  no  definite  rule  for  determining  when  a limestone  shall 
be  called  “argillaceous.”  The  argillaceous  limestone  in  the  “Lehigh 
district”  of  Pennsylvania  and  New  Jersey  has  been  called  “cement 
rock,”  because  it  has  been  the  most  important  source  of  cement  in 
this  country.  Until  as  late  as  1903  two-thirds  of  the  Portland  cement 


22 


CEMENT  MATERIALS. 


manufactured  in  the  United  States  was  made  from  the  “cement  rock” 
of  the  Lehigh  district,  mixed  with  pure  limestone.  This  district  is 
still  producing  38  per  cent  of  the  Portland  cement  of  the  United 
States. 

The  quality  and  composition  of  some  of  the  argillaceous  limestones 
now  used  by  American  cement  plants  are  here  given: 


TABLE  4. 


ANALYSES  OF  ARGILLACEOUS  HARD  LIMESTONES,  “CEMENT  ROCK,” 
LEHIGH  DISTRICT.* 


Silica  (SiOj) 

Altunina  (AljOs) 

Iron  oxide  (FeiOs) 

Lime  carbonate  (CaCOj) 

Magnesium  carbonate  (MgCOs) . 
Carbon  dioxide  (CO2) 


18.30  15.97  17.32  19.62  16.77  15.73  19.06 
6. U 7.53\  J 4.44 

1.85  2.24/  9 11  5 68  6 50  792\  1.14 

36.38  34.34  38.59  39.08  41.37  39.62  38.77 
2.13  3.93  2.05  2.35  n.d.  1.81  2.02 
28.96  32.80  32.55  33.25  n.d.  33.08  32.66 


ANALYSES  OF  ARGILLACEOUS  LIMESTONES  FROM  WESTERN  UNITED 

STATES.t 


Silica  (SiC>2) 

21.02 

6.80 

20.06 

7.12 

14. 

20 

Alumina  (AI2O3) 

8.00 

3.00 

10.07 

2.36 

5. 

21 

Iron  oxide  (Fe20s) 

3.39 

1.16 

1. 

73 

Lime  carbonate  (CaCO») 

62.08 

89.80 

63.40 

• 87.70 

75. 

10 

Magnesium  carbonate  (MgCOj) . . . 

3.80 

0.76 

1.54 

0.84 

1. 

10 

It  will  be  seen  by  a study  of  the  above  analyses  that  in  order  to 
bring  the  argillaceous  limestones  to  the  proper  composition  of  Port- 
land cement  (75  to  77  per  cent  of  lime  carbonate)  they  require  the 
addition  of  a purer  limestone. 


HARD  PURE  LIMESTONE. 

Pure  limestone  has  the  composition  of  calcite  (CaCo3),  correspond- 
ing to  the  composition,  calcium  oxide,  56  per  cent;  carbon  dioxide, 
44  per  cent.  The  theoretically  pure  limestone  is  rarely  met  with  in 
nature  in  large  quantities.  The  most  common  impurities  found  in 
limestones  are  magnesia,  silica,  alumina,  iron,  alkalies  and  a few  minor 
materials. 

Magnesia  may  be  carried  in  solution  and  introduced  into  the 
limestone  when  it  is  being  formed,  or  subsequently  forming  a mag- 


*Cements,  Limes  and  Plasters,  E.  C.  Eckel,  1905,  p.  329. 
fBulletin  243  U.  S.  Geological  Survey,  1905,  p.  32. 


LIMESTONE  AND  CHALK. 


23 


nesian  limestone.  The  calcium  carbonate  is  replaced  by  the  magnesium 
carbonate.  Limestones  in  which  the  calcium  carbonate  and  the  mag- 
nesium carbonate  are  united  in  equal  molecular  proportions  are  called 
dolomites,  having  a formula  CaC03,  MgC03,  and  are  composed  of 
54.35  per  cent  calcium  carbonate,  and  45.65  per  cent  magnesium 
carbonate.  Magnesia  in  Portland  cement  is  an  inert  material  and 
limestones  containing  more  than  5 or  6 per  cent  of  it  should  be 
avoided. 

Where  the  impurities  in  the  limestones  are  chiefly  clayey  materials, 
silica,  alumina  and  iron  oxide,  the  chemical  composition  of  the  raw 
material  is  of  the  greatest  importance  to  the  cement  manufacturer, 
and  should  be  carefully  studied.  Where  the  silica  is  present  in  lime- 
stones in  the  form  of  free  sand  or  chert  nodules  it  will  not  easily  enter 
into  combination  with  the  calcium  carbonate,  and  is,  therefore, 
largely  an  inert  material.  If,  however,  silica  and  alumina  are  com- 
bined in  the  form  of  clay,  shale  or  slate  they  readily  combine  with 
the  calcium  carbonate  under  the  action  of  heat. 

A cement  manufacturer  having  a limestone  with  a high  per  cent 
of  calcium  carbonate  must  select  a clay  with  a high  silica-alumina 
ratio.  If,  however,  he  has  a limestone  with  a low  per  cent  of  calcium 
carbonate  great  care  must  be  used  in  selecting  a clay  with  a low 
silica-alumina  ratio. 

“For  this  reason  it  may  be  taken  as  a safe  rule  that  when  a lime- 
stone carries  less  than  90  per  cent  of  lime  carbonate  it  should  give  a 
value  between  2.25  and  3.00  for  the  ratio  Xhol+^Oa-  These  are 
comfortable  limits,  and  will  give  the  manufacturer  considerable 
latitude  in  his  choice  of  a clay  to  mix  with  it.”* 


CHALK. 

Chalk  is  a white  limestone  so  soft  that  it  can  be  easily  scratched 
with  the  finger  nail.  Where  pure  it  is  composed  of  fine  sediment  of 
calcium  carbonate  derived  chiefly  from  shells  of  foraminifera.  Like 
other  forms  of  calcareous  deposits  it  varies  from  a rather  pure  calcium 
carbonate  to  a chalky  limestone  containing  silica,  alumina,  magnesia, 
iron  and  other  impurities,  requiring  little  additional  material  to  make 


♦Cements,  Limes  and  Plasters,  E.  C.  Eckel,  1906,  p.  316. 


24 


CEMENT  MATERIALS. 


it  suitable  for  Portland  cement  manufacture.  The  range  in  com- 
position of  chalky  limestones  used  in  American  cement  plants  is  here 
given : 


TABLE  5. 

ANALYSES  OF  CHALK  USED  IN  AMERICAN  CEMENT  PLANTS. 


Silica  (SiO*) 

....  12.50 

9.88 

5.33 

12.13 

2.22 

Alumina  (AljO*) 

'"J  2.76 

6.20 

3.03 

f 4.17 

.92 

Iron  oxide  (FejOj) 

\ 3.28 

.18 

Lime  (CaO) 

45.20 

43.19 

50.53 

42.04 

54.08 

Magnesia  (MgO) 

0.50 

0.52 

0.55 

0.44 

0.10 

Carbon  dioxide  (CO2) 

36.06 

34.49 

50.30 

33.51\ 

42.50 

Water 

1.36 

5.72 

n.d. 

n.d.J 

The  most  extensive  calcareous  formation  in  Mississippi  is  the 
Selma  chalk  or  “rotten  limestone”  which  is  more  than  900  feet  thick 
in  Lowndes,  Noxubee,  Oktibbeha,  Clay,  Monroe  and  Chickasaw 
counties,  and  thins  to  about  300  feet  in  Alcorn  County.  Under  the 
discussion  of  the.  Selma  chalk  are  numerous  analyses,  some  of  which 
are  inferior  to  and  some  better  than  the  ones  given  above. 

FRESH-WATER  MARL. 

Marl,  such  as  is  used  in  cement  manufacture,  is  a chemical  deposit 
of  almost  pure  carbonate  of  lime  which  has  been  deposited  in  inland 
seas  and  lakes  by  streams  or  springs  carrying  lime  carbonate  in  solu- 
tion. Marls  differ  from  hard  limestones  in  that  they  are  masses  of 
granular,  incoherent  deposits  containing  land  shells  and  shell  frag- 
ments. 

Workable  deposits  of  marl  are  chiefly  confined  to  that  part  of  the 
United  States  which  was  formerly . covered  by  glacial  deposits.  Most 
of  the  lakes  of  northern  United  States  and  Canada  are  due  to  the 
damming  of  streams,  and  to  the  uneven  distribution  of  the  glacial 
deposits.  The  streams  of  that  region  carry  a large  per  cent  of  lime 
carbonate  in  solution  and  deposit  it  on  the  sides  and  bottoms  of  the 
enclosed  lakes.  These  marl  deposits  are  still  in  process  of  formation. 

Marl  is  in  composition,  as  shown  by  the  following  analyses,  a 
comparatively  pure  lime  carbonate,  and  is  correspondingly  low  in 
silica,  alumina  and  other  impurities.  Where  used  in  cement  manu- 
facture it  requires  the  addition  of  a large  amount  of  clay  to  bring  it 
to  the  proper  mixture. 


OYSTER  SHELLS. 


25 


TABLE  6. 

ANALYSES  OF  MARLS  USED  IN  AMERICAN  CEMENT  PLANTS  * 


Silica  (Si02) 

1.74 

1.78 

0.19 

0.06 

1.19 

Alumina  (A1203) 

0.901 

1.21 

f0.05l 

0.80 

f0.55 

Iron  oxide  (Fe203) 

0.28/ 

\0.07j 

\0.25 

Lime  (CaO) 

. ...  49.84 

49.55 

51.31 

55.00 

52.50 

Magnesia  (MgO) 

1.75 

1.30 

1.93 

1.16 

Alkalies  (K203,  Na20) 

1.84 

Sulphur  trioxide  (SO3) 

1.12 

1.58 

0.14 

0.05 

tr. 

Carbon  dioxide  (C02) 

■••■J  46.01 

/40.35 

42.40 

43.22 

42.51 

Organic  matter 

\ 4.23 

2.25 

n.d. 

OYSTER  SHELLS, 


Oyster  shells  are  composed  almost  entirely  of  lime  carbonate, 
and  as  such  they  could  be  used  in  the  manufacture  of  Portland  cement. 
At  present,  however,  they  are  not  so  used  by  any  plant  in  the  United 
States. 

In  regions  where  oyster  canning  is  carried  on  extensively  oyster 
shells  form  an  important  waste  product  which  is  usually  disposed  of 
for  making  shell  roads.  Where  suitable  clay  can  be  obtained  they 
might  form  an  important  source  of  Portland  cement  material. 

The  oyster  shells  from  Biloxi,  Mississippi,  as  shown  by  the  follow- 
ing analysis,  could  be  used  in  the  manufacture  of  Portland  cement. 
Good  clay  can  be  obtained  on  Tchouticabouff  River. 

TABLE  7. 

ANALYSIS  OF  OYSTER  SHELLS  FROM  BILOXI. 

Silica  (Si02) 

Alumina  (Al2Oa) 

Iron  oxide  (Fe2Oj). . . . 

Lime  (CaO) 

Magnesia  (MgO) 

Sulphur  trioxide  (SO3) 

Volatile  matter  (C02). 

Moisture 


5.30 

.73 

.57 

50.25 

.45 

.25 

41.39 


ALKALI  WASTE. 

In  the  manufacture  of  caustic  soda  there  is  a large  per  cent  of 
waste  material  in  the  form  of  lime  carbonate  which  is  sufficiently 
pure  for  use  as  a Portland  cement  material. 

The  possibility  of  using  the  waste  product  depends  on  the  process 
used  in  the  alkali  plant.  In  the  Leblanc  process  pyrite  is  used, 


♦Cements,  Limes  and  Plasters,  E.  C.  Eckel,  1905,  p.  342. 


26 


CEMENT  MATERIALS. 


which  combines  with  the  lime  and  forms  a large  percentage  of  lime 
sulphide  which  renders  the  resulting  waste  unfit  for  use  in  Portland 
cement  manufacture.  In  the  ammonia  process  of  making  caustic 
soda  pvrite  is  not  used  and  the  precipitated  waste  is  largely  a mass 
of  lime  carbonate.  The  amount  of  sulphur,  magnesia  and  other 
impurities  found  in  the  waste  depends  largely  on  the  character  of  the 
limestone  used.  Where  a pure  limestone  is  used  the  waste  forms  a 
cheap  source  of  lime  for  Portland  cement. 

The  following  analyses  were  made  from  the  waste  obtained  at 
alkali  plants  using  the  ammonia  process: 

TABLE  8. 

ANALYSES  OF  ALKALI  WASTE  * 


Silica  (Si02) 

0.60 

1.75 

1.98 

0.98 

Alumina  (Al*Oi) 

Iron  oxide  (Fe*0*) 

3.04 

0.61 

I1'41) 

11-38/ 

1.62 

Lime  (CaO) 

53.33 

50.60 

48.29 

50.40 

Magnesia  (MgO) 

0.48 

5.35 

1.51 

4.97 

Alkalies  (K2Of  Na20) 

0.20 

0.64 

0.64 

0.50 

Sulphur  trioxide  (SO*) 

n.d. 

1.26 

n.d. 

Sulphur  (S) 

0.10 

n.d. 

0.06 

Carbon  dioxide  (CO*) 

42.431 

41  70 

139.60 

n.d. 

Water  and  organic  matter 

n.d.J 

\ 3.80 

n.d. 

SLAG. 

Slag  is  a by-product  obtained  from  blast  furnaces.  In  refining 
metallic  ores,  especially  iron,  limestone  is  most  commonly  used  as 
a flux.  In  heating  the  gangue  the  lime  unites  with  the  silica,  the 
alumina  and  other  materials  present  in  the  gangue  forming  fusible 
silicates.  In  the  high  heat  to  which  it  is  subjected  the  limestone  gives 
up  a large  per  cent  of  lime  carbonate  which  in  the  slag  is  changed 
to  the  oxide.  Slags  generally  contain  from  30  to  40  per  cent  of  lime 
oxide.  Dolomite  and  highly  magnesian  limestones  render  the  slag 
unfit  for  cement  manufacture. 

Where  slag  of  the  proper  composition  can  be  obtained  in  sufficient 
quantities  it  may  be  combined  with  a pure  limestone  in  the  manu- 
facture of  Portland  cement. 

TABLE  9. 

ANALYSIS  OF  SLAG  USED  IN  GERMAN  PORTLAND  CEMENT  PLANTS* 


Per  cent 

Silica  (Si02) 30  to  35 

Altunina  (AI2O3) 10  to  14 

Iron  oxide  (FeO) 00 . 2 to  01 . 2 

Lime  (CaO) 46  to  49 

Magnesia  (MgO) 00 . 5 to  03 . 5 

Sulphur  trioxide  (SO  j) 00 . 2 to  00 . 6 


*Bulletin  243,  U.  S.  Geological  Survey,  E.  C.  Eckel,  1905,  p.  37. 
♦Bulletin  243,  U.  S.  Geological  Survey,  1905,  p.  38. 


CLAYS  AND  SHALE. 


27 


CLAY* 

Clays  have  in  their  composition  alumina  and  silica  with  impurities 
of  iron,  magnesium,  sulphur,  alkalies  and  other  minor  impurities. 
The  proportion  of  these  ingredients  varies  from  the  hydrous  silicate 
of  alumina,  kaolinite,  to  the  lean  sandy  clays  with  barely  enough 
alumina  in  them  to  bond  them. 

The  value  of  a clay  for  use  in  the  manufacture  of  Portland  cement 
depends  on  its  comparative  freedom  from  impurities.  The  best  clays 
are  those  having  a greasy,  unctuous  feel  and  free  from  sand.  Some 
clays  like  those  found  in  the  Lafayette  formation  contain  a high  per 
cent  of  free  silica  which  is  not  in  chemical  combination  with  iron, 
alumina  or  lime,  and  should,  therefore,  be  avoided.  Such  clays  may 
be  well  suited  for  common  brick,  but  ill  suited  for  making  cement. 
A clay  which  is  free  from  all  impurities  is  hard  to  find  in  nature. 
Residual  and  transported  clays,  such  as  occur  in  association  with  the 
limestones  of  Mississippi,  are  apt  to  contain  a large  amount  of  insol- 
uble material,  which  is  inert  in  the  kiln.  The  purest  clays  in  the  State 
are  those  found  in  the  Cretaceous  and  Tertiary  formations. 

Fortunately  for  the  cement  manufacturer  clays  with  a low  per- 
centage of  impurities  may  be  used.  A study  of  a large  number  of 
analyses  of  clays  now  used  in  American  cement  plants  shows  a general 
average  of  about  61  per  cent  of  silica,  the  lowest  not  below  53  per  cent, 
and  the  highest  not  above  75  per  cent.  “The  alumina*  and  iron  oxide 
together  should  not  amount  to  more  than  one-half  the  percentage  of 
silica,  and  the  composition  will  usually  be  better  the  nearer  the  ratio 
Al202  + Fe203  = ^p  is  approached.” 

The  average  amount  of  magnesia  in  87  analyses  of  clays  and  shales 
now  used  in  American  cement  plants  is  2.21  per  cent.  Alkalies  and 
iron  pyrite  should  be  as  low  as  possible. 


SHALE. 

Shale  is  a product  resulting  from  a mixture  of  residual  materials 
derived  from  the  decay  of  all  kinds  of  rocks  which  have  been  dis- 
integrated by  mechanical  and  chemical  agencies,  carried  off  and 
deposited  by  streams  along  their  channels  and  at  their  mouths,  and 


♦Cements,  Limes  and  Plasters,  E.  C.  Eckel  p.  354 


28 


CEMENT  MATER  ALS. 


subsequently  hardened  by  rock  pressure.  The  chemical  composition 
of  shale  is  essentially  silica  and  alumina,  while  iron  oxide,  lime, 
magnesia,  sulphur  and  alkalies  are  of  frequent  occurrence. 

SLATE. 

Slates  are  shales  and  clays  which  have  been  formed  by  lateral 
compression  developing  cleavage  planes  which  may  or  may  not  be 
parallel  to  the  planes  of  deposition. 

Clays,  shales  and  slates  may  be  used  in  the  manufacture  of  Port- 
land cement.  Slates  require  more  power  to  pulverize  them  and  are, 
for  that  reason,  less  used  than  clays  and  shales.  As  a waste  product 
in  slate  quarries  slate  can  be  obtained  very  cheaply,  and  where  lime- 
stone is  accessible  it  would  form  a desirable  material  in  Portland 
cement  mixture. 


METHODS  OF  PORTLAND  CEMENT  MANUFACTURE. 

The  methods  of  Portland  cement  manufacture  have  been  greatly 
improved  in  the  United  States  in  the  last  decade.  Heavy  machinery 
must  be  installed  for  crushing  the  raw  materials  to  an  impalpable 
flour.  The  enormous  cost  of  erecting  a cement  plant  is  largely 
attributable  to  the  heavy  machinery  and  the  fireproof  kilns. 

The  processes  involved  in  the  manufacture  of  Portland  cement 
may  be  divided  as  follows: 

Preparing  and  grinding  the  raw  materials. 

Burning. 

Grinding  the  clinker. 

PREPARING  AND  GRINDING  THE  RAW  MATERIALS. 

One  of  the  essential  differences  between  Portland  cement  and 
natural  cement  is  in  the  preparation  of  the  mixture  before  burning. 
The  raw  materials  for  a true  Portland  are  intimately  mixed  in  definite 
chemical  proportions  and  thoroughly  ground  before  burning.  In 
natural  cement  the  stone  is  burned  as  it  comes  from  the  quarry, 
without  previously  being  ground  and  mixed.  The  chemical  propor- 
tions in  a Portland  cement  can,  therefore,  the  more  easily  be  kept 
within  certain  narrow  limits. 


DRY  PROCESS. 


29 


Dry  Process. 

In  the  dry  method  of  preparing  the  mixture  for  the  kiln  it  is 
necessary  to  drive  off  the  mechanically  held  water  from  the  raw 
materials.  The  amount  of  water  contained  in  the  raw  materials 
depends  upon  the  character  of  the  rocks  and  the  condition  of  the 
weather. 

All  freshly  quarried  limestones  contain  more  or  less  hydroscopic 
or  mechanically  held  water  in  addition  to  the  chemically  combined 
water.  Very  compact  limestones,  such  as  the  oolitic  limestones  of 
Tishomingo  County,  carry  from  £ to  3 and  possibly  4 per  cent  of  water 
in  rainy  seasons. 

The  percentage  of  water  in  porous  chalky  limestones,  such  as  the 
Selma  chalk,  will,  doubtless,  in  rainy  seasons,  run  as  high  as  from 
10  to  15  per  cent.  The  amount  of  water  in  chalks  will  vary  in  different 
geological  formations,  and  in  different  parts  of  the  same  formation. 

Clays  and  shales  are  more  porous  than  limestones,  and  hence  carry 
a greater  percentage  of  water.  The  amount  of  water  carried  will 
depend  on  the  region,  the  season,  the  natural  drainage,  and  the 
porosity  of  the  material.  It  has  been  estimated  that  the  total  amount 
of  hydroscopic  and  chemically  combined  water  in  clays  may  range 
from  6 to  42  per  cent. 

Where  the  raw  materials  are  to  be  finely  ground  the  mechanically 
combined  or  hydroscopic  water  is  first  removed  by  some  method  of 
drying.  In  some  plants  the  clays  or  shales  are  dried  by  storing 
the  materials  in  large  sheds.  This,  however,  requires  extra  shed 
room,  and  likewise,  additional  handling.  In  most  plants  it  has  been 
found  more  economical  and  quicker  to  dry  the  raw  materials  by 
artificial  heat.  The  materials  are  usually  partially  reduced  before 
drying. 

Before  the  introduction  of  the  rotary  kiln  the  materials  were 
dried  in  drying  tunnels  and  on  drying  floors. 

The  most  economical  and  efficient  dryer  now  in  use  at  the  large 
Portland  cement  plants  of  the  United  States  is  some  type  of  the 
rotary  dryer,  constructed  in  a manner  similar  to  the  rotary  kilns. 
At  one  plant  an  ordinary  rotary  kiln  is  used  for  drying  the  raw 
materials. 

In  the  rotary  dryer  the  materials  are  introduced  into  the  upper 
end  of  the  dryer  by  means  of  a chute.  The  combined  rotary  motion 


30 


CEMENT  MATERIALS. 


imparted  to  the  dryer  and  the  action  of  gravity  gradually  move  the 
materials  to  the  lower  end  where. they  fall  on  an  endless  belt  and 
are  conveyed  to  the  crushers.  In  passing  through  the  dryer  the 
materials  come  in  contact  with  heat  and  are  thoroughly  dried. 

Dry  heat  is  forced  into  the  dryer  at  the  lower  end  and  moves  in 
an  opposite  direction  to  the  motion  of  the  raw  materials.  It  thus 
completely  envelopes  the  raw  materials  and  drives  off  the  water  of 
moisture  which  partially  saturates  the  dry  air. 

At  the  Edison  Portland  cement  plant  of  New  Jersey,  a vertical 
tower-dryer  is  used  for  drying  the  argillaceous  and  pure  limestones 
used  for  making  cement.  The  crushed  rock  is  conveyed  to  the  top 
of  the  stack,  and  by  means  of  the  baffle  system  of  screens,  which 
partially  retard  the  speed  of  the  fall,  descends  through  the  rising 
gases  of  combustion,  and  is  thoroughly  dried.  The  dryer  has  a capac- 
ity of  3,000  tons  per  day,  the  same  as  the  crusher  plant.  A piece  of 
rock  will  pass  through  the  dryer  in  26  seconds,  reducing  the  percentage 
of  moisture  from  3 or  4 per  cent  to  about  1 per  cent.  The  raw  materials 
are  conveyed  from  the  dryer  to  the  crushers  and  reduced  and  mixed 
preparatory  to  burning.  The  mixing  may  be  accomplished  either 
before  or  after  grinding.  The  coarse  materials  are  first  crushed  in  a 
Gate’s  crusher,  Blake’s  crusher,  or  in  rolls.  All  of  these  mills,  working 
upon  different  principles,  reduce  the  materials  so  they  that  can  be 
handled  by  Huntingdon,  or  Griffin  mills,  comminuter  or  ball  mill. 

Any  one  of  the  four  latter  mills  will  reduce  the  materials  so  that 
they  will  pass  through  a 30-inch  mesh.  The  reduction  previous  to 
burning  is  usually  completed  in  a tube  mill  where  90  to  95  per  cent 
of  mixture  should  pass  through  a 100-mesh  sieve. 

In  soft  materials,  such  as  are  found  in  Mississippi,  the  entire  crush- 
ing before  grinding  could  be  accomplished  economically  by  a com- 
bination of  ball  mills  and  tube  mills,  or  by  comminuter  and  tube  mills. 
In  the  use  of  chalky  limestone  the  entire  process  of  reduction  may  be 
accomplished  in  tube  mills. 

The  cost  of  drying  depends  on  the  amount  of  moisture  in  the  raw 
materials,  the  type  of  dryer  used,  and  the  cost  of  fuel.  It  has  been 
estimated  that  the  most  improved  dryer  will  evaporate  seven  or  eight 
pounds  of  water  per  pound  of  coal. 


WET  PROCESS,  SLAG. 


31 


Wet  Process. 

The  wet  process  of  manufacturing  Portland  cement  is  best  adapted 
to  plants  located  in  the  northern  States  and  in  Canada,  where  the 
raw  materials  used  are  frequently  fresh-water  marls  and  clay.  The 
marl  usually  occurs  in  swamps  which  are  covered  with  water  in  wet 
seasons,  and  often  frozen  over  in  winter.  Such  plai  cs,  therefore, 
can  run  only  a portion  of  the  year. 

The  marls  and  clays  are  usually  excavated  from  the  pits  by  means 
of  steam  shovels.  In  some  plants  the  marl  is  thoroughly  mixed  with 
water  in  the  pit  and  pumped  to  the  mill  through  pipes.  The  marl  is 
screened  before  mixing  with  the  clay  to  remove  pebbles,  sticks  and 
roots.  The  clay  in  some  plants  is  dried  and  pulverized  before  mixing 
in  order  to  determine  more  easily  the  per  cent  of  the  mixture.  The 
materials  are  mixed  in  the  proportion  of  about  75  per  cent  of  marl 
and  25  per  cent  of  clay.  The  mixture  is  ground  in  wet  mills  of  the 
disc  type  and  finally  reduced  in  wTet  tube  mills. 

The  slurry  from  the  tube  mills  contains  from  30  to  40  per  cent  of 
solid  matter,  and  60  to  70  per  cent  of  water.  From  the  tube  mills 
the  slurry  is  pumped  to  large  tanks  and  analyzed.  If  it  contains 
the  proper  percentages  of  marl  and  clay,  it  is  conveyed  to  the  rotary 
kiln  and  burned. 

The  daily  output  of  a 60-foot  rotary  kiln,  using  the  wet  process, 
is  from  80  to  120  barrels,  as  compared  with  160  to  180  barrels  of  a dry 
mixture.  The  difference  is  due  to  the  great  amount  of  water  to  be 
removed  in  the  wet  process.  The  cost  per  barrel  in  a wet  mixture  is 
30  to  50  per  cent  greater  than  in  the  dry  process. 

PREPARING  SLAG  FOR  CEMENT. 

In  iron -producing  districts  true  Portland  cement  may  also  be 
made  from  a mixture  of  blast-furnace  slag  and  pure  limestone.  The 
slag  contains  a sufficient  amount  of  silica  and  alumina  for  the  mixture. 
In  addition  it  usually  carries  from  30  to  40  per  cent  of  lime.  By 
the  addition  of  a pure  limestone  the  proper  percentages  of  a Portland 
cement  are  obtained. 

In  American  cement  plants  the  two  materials  are  ground  separately 
and  then  mixed  in  proper  proportions.  The  mixture  is  then  finely 
pulverized  in  tube  mills  and  conveyed  to  rotary  kilns  and  burned. 


32 


CEMENT  MATERIALS. 


Where  a good  quality  of  slag  and  limestone  can  be  obtained,  the 
cost  of  making  cement  is  reduced  to  a minimum.  The  process  requires 
but  little  skilled  labor  and  a relatively  cheap  plant. 

Burning, 

After  the  raw  materials  are  carefully  mixed  and  ground  they  are 
burned  to  a semi-vitrified  mass  called  clinker,  in  kilns  specially 
designed  for  the  purpose. 

The  first  kilns  used  in  the  manufacture  of  Portland  cement  were 
the  stationary,  intermittent,  upright  kilns,  similar  to  those  now 
generally  in  use  in  burning  lime.  They  have  some  advantages  over 
the  more  modem  kilns.  The  original  cost  of  construction  is  smaller, 
and  less  fuel  is  required.  But  in  this  country, where  fuel  is  compara- 
tively cheap,  the  object  to  be  attained  is  as  large  an  output  as  possible. 
For  this  reason,  therefore,  the  rotary  kiln  has  become  very  popular, 
and  in  all  the  modem,  up-to-date  plants  they  have  displaced  the 
upright  kilns.  The  upright  kilns  are  still  in  use  in  Europe. 

The  rotary  kiln  is  a steel  cylinder  from  5 to  7 feet  in  diameter, 
and  from  60  to  150  feet  long.  It  is  lined  with  the  best  fire  brick  to 
withstand  the  enormous  heat  necessary  to  bum  the  raw  materials. 

The  kiln  is  inclined  at  about  one-half  inch  to  the  foot.  The  mixture 
to' be  burned  is  fed  into  the  upper  end.  The  rotation  of  the  kiln  and 
the  action  of  gravity  gradually  force  the  material  through  the  kiln. 
In  passing  through  it  comes  in  contact  with  intense  heat  generated 
by  the  combustion  of  fuel  gases,  driving  off  the  water  and  the  carbon 
dioxide,  and  forming  a chemical  combination  of  lime,  silica,  alumina 
and  iron  oxide.  The  resulting  mass  falls  out  at  the  lower  end  of  the 
kiln r as  clinker. 

The  fuel  is  fed  into  the  kiln  at  the  lower  end  just  above  the  opening 
through  which  the  clinker  falls  out.  If  coal  is  used  as  a fuel  it  is  first 
finely  ^crushed  and  thoroughly  dried,  and  by  means  of  an  automatic 
feeder  is  forced  into  the  kiln. 


Fuels. 

Coal. — The  most  common  fuel  used  in  the  manufacture  of  Portland 
cement  is  bituminous  coal.  A coal  high  in  volatile  matter  and  low  in 
ash  has  been  found  to  be  more  desirable  than  coals  containing  a high 
per  cent  of  carbon,  such  as  anthracite  and  semi-bituminous  coals. 


FUELS. 


33 


A coal  which  contains  more  than  2 per  cent  of  sulphur  should  not  be 
used. 

The  following  table  gives  the  analyses  of  coals  now  used  in  different 
Portland  cement  plants  in  the  United  States: 


TABLE  10. 

ANALYSES  OF  KILN  COALS  * 


Volatile  matter 32.90  38.10  31.38  35.41  35.26  39.52  39.37  31.87  37.44  38.00 

Fixed  carbon 54.66  53.24  58.23  56.15  56.33  51.69  55.82  51.05  53.72  51.72 

Sulphur n.d.  n.d.  n.d.  1.30  1.34  1.46  0.42  n.d.  n.d.  n.d. 

Ash 10.25  8.06  9.42  6.36  7.06  6.13  3.81  5.22  5.50  5.38 

Moisture 2.19  0.60  1.03  2.08  1.35  1.40  1.00  11.86  3.334  4.90 


Before  the  coal  is  used  in  the  kiln  the  large  lumps  and  nut  coal  are 
first  crushed  and  reduced  to  slack  in  an  ordinary  crusher.  It  is  then 
taken  to  the  dryer  where  all  the  hydroscopic  or  mechanically  held 
water  is  driven  off.  This  is  most  economically  done  in  a rotary  dryer, 
in  much  the  same  way  as  the  raw  clay  and  the  limestone  are  dried. 
Care  should  be  taken  in  drying  the  coal  not  to  raise  the  temperature 
high  enough  to  drive  off  any  of  the  volatile  combustible  gases. 

After  the  coal  has  been  dried  it  is  crushed  and  pulverized  so  that 
at  least  85  per  cent  of  it  will  pass  through  a 100-mesh  sieve.  The 
finer  the  coal  is  pulverized  the  more  thorough  is  the  combustion,  and 
the  better  the  results  in  the  kiln.  A poor  coal,  if  finely  pulverized, 
will  give  better  results  than  a higher  grade  of  coal  coarsely  ground. 
For  this  reason  it  is  desirable  to  get  the  run  of  the  mines,  the  origi 
nal  cost  of  which  is  cheaper,  requires  less  crushing,  and  is  as  good  as 
the  hard  lump  coal. 

The  cost  of  coal  as  a fuel  depends  on  the  production-cost,  the 
quality  of  the  coal,  the  kind  of  kilns  used,  and  the  degree  of  fineness 
to  which  it  is  crushed  before  using. 

From  200  to  300  pounds  of  coal  are  used  in  the  power  plant  and  in 
the  kilns  in  the  manufacture  of  a barrel  (380  pounds)  of  Portland 
cement. 

The  cost  of  crushing,  drying  and  finely  pulverizing  the  coal,  con- 
veying it  to  the  kilns,  allowing  for  repairs,  and  interest  on  a four- 
kiln  plant,  will  vary  from  20  to  30  cents  per  ton,  or  about  3 to  5 cents 

♦Cements,  Limes  and  Plasters,  E.  C.  Eckel,  1905,  p.  513. 

2-bl 


34 


CEMENT  MATERIALS. 


per  barrel  of  cement.  In  the  average  plant  using  coal  as  a fuel,  about 
one-third  of  the  total  cost  of  the  cement  may  be  chargeable  to  fuel. 
The  question  of  cheap  fuel  should,  therefore,  be  an  important  factor 
in  determining  the  location  of  a Portland  cement  plant. 

Oil.  Oil  was  formerly  used  in  Pennsylvania  Portland  cement 
plants  as  a fuel  in  rotary  kilns;  but  its  use  has  been  abandoned  for 
coal.  Oil  is  used  in  some  of  the  wesem  plants  where  good  heating 
coals  cannot  be  obtained  at  reasonable  prices. 

It  is  claimed  that  from  11  to  14  gallons  of  oil,  used  in  a rotary 
kiln,  will  bum  one  barrel  of  cement.  On  this  basis,  1 gallon  of  oil  is 
equivalent  to  about  20  pounds  of  coal. 

Natural  gas. — In  sections  of  the  country  where  there  is  natural 
gas  it  is  found  to  be  a very  economical  fuel.  The  gas  is  fed  into  the 
kiln  by  means  of  a large  gas  burner.  It  is  found  to  be  as  good  a fuel 
as  coal  and  requires  much  less  labor  and  storeroom  to  feed  it  to  the 
kiln. 

Produce  gas. — At  present  there  are  three  cement  plants  in  the 
United  S’  rs  using  producer  gas  as  a fuel.  Only  one  of  these  has 
bee:  successful  in  obtaining  an  economical  fuel  consumption. 

It  has  bee. . shown  by  experiments  carried  on  by  the  United  States 
Geological  Survey  Coal-testing  Plant  at  St.  Louis,  that  the  best 
quality  of  producer  gas  is  obtained  from  bituminous  coals  and  lignites. 
This  gas  tan  be  ignited  in  internal  combustion  engines  for  the  develop- 
ment of  power,  with  a fuel  economy  of  more  than  50  per  cent.  A 
number  of  bituminous  coals  were  converted  into  producer  gas  and 
burned  in  gas  engines  with  a gain  in  power  of  2.6  per  cent  more  than 
when  coal  was  burned  under  a common  boiler  in  the  production  of 
steam  power. 

It  was  further  shown  that  gas  of  a higher  quality  can  be  obtained 
from  lignites  and  low  grade  coals  than  from  the  best  Pennsylvania 
and  West  Virginia  bituminous  coals.  The  gas  obtained  from  a ton  of 
lignite,  and  burned  in  a gas  engine,  produced  as  much  power  as  a ton 
of  the  best  bituminous  coal  burned  under  a common  boiler. 

In  his  investigations  of  the  lignites  of  Mississippi  Dr.  Calvin  S. 
Brown,  assistant  geologist  of  the  State  Survey,  has  shown  that  there 
are  a large  number  of  workable  veins  of  lignite  in  the  State.  It  is 
quite  possible,  therefore,  that  a high  quality  of  producer  gas  could 


GRINDING  THE  CLINKER. 


35 


be  made  from  the  lignites  of  Mississippi,  and  a more  economical  power 
produced  than  can  be  obtained  by  using  Alabama,  Kentucky  and 

Illinois  coals. 

TABLE  IU 

ANALYSES  OF  MISSISSIPPI  LIGNITES. 


Moisture 13.61  12.51  13.50  8.72  14.61  14.90 

Volatile  matter 37.14  41.40  39.66  34.64  38.51  39.21 

Fixed  carbon 42.10  33 .93^  36.50  22.84  39.10  35.57 

Ash 7.15  12.16  10.34  33.80  7.78  10.32 


Total 100.00  100.00  100.00  100.00  100.00  100.00 

Sulphur 2.64  2.77  4.10  2.76  1.28  0.56 

Moisture 15.22  13.04  14.60  13.20  12.26  11.61 

Volatile  matter 42.38  36.68  30.59  40.16  37.43  34.61 

Fixed  carbon 34.91  35.62  35.21  31.24  41.91  42.47 

Ash 7.49  14.66  11.60  15.40  6.37  11.31 


Total 100.00  100.00  100.00  100.00  100.00  100.00 

Sulphur 0.91  0.48  1.83  1.20  0.94  2.66 


GRINDING  THE  CLINKER. 


As  the  burned  clinker  emerges  from  the  rotary  kiln  it  has  a tem- 
perature ranging  from  300°  F.  to  2,500°  F.,  or  about  13*  per  cent  of 
the  total  amount  of  heat  utilized  in  the  kiln.  Before  it  can  be  crushed 
the  clinker  must  in  some  way  be  cooled. 

A number  of  devices  have  been  invented  to  cool  the  clinker  in 
the  most  rapid  and  at  the  same  time  in  the  most  economical  way. 
In  some  plants  the  hot  clinker,  on  its  journey  from  the  kiln  to  the 
storage  room,  is  subjected  to  a spray  of  water,  the  evaporation  of  which 
absorbs  the  heat  of  the  clinker.  In  this  method  of  clinker-cooling 
none  of  the  heat  of  the  clinker  is  utilized.  Since  the  amount  of  heat 
carried  off  in  the  clinker  is  so  great,  efforts  have  been  made  to  utilize 
the  heat  of  the  cooling  clinker.  This  has  been  the  most  successfully 
done  by  the  two-stage  rotary  cooler. 

The  principle  on  which  the  cooling  is  done  is  here  summarized 
from  a description  of  the.  cooling  system  at  the  main  Atlas  cement 
plant,  by  Stanger  and  Blount  in  Proc.  Inst.  Civil  Engineers,  Vol.  145, 
pp.  57-68,  1901. 

The  hot  clinker  from  the  kiln  falls  into  a rapidly  revolving  cylinder 
about  30  feet  long  and  3 feet  in  diameter,  otherwise  similar  in  con- 
struction to  the  rotary  kiln.  At  the  end  of  the  cylinder  opposite  the 
kiln  is  admitted  a blast  of  cool  air  which  passes  through  the  cylinder, 


36 


CEMENT  MATERIALS. 


cools  the  clinker,  and  is  admitted  into  the  kiln  in  a highly  heated 
condition.  At  the  end  of  the  first  cylinder  the  clinker  passes  through 
a crusher  which  is  kept  cool  by  a spray  of  water.  The  clinker  passes 
from  the  crusher  through  a second  cylinder,  60  feet  long  and  5 feet  in 
diameter.  From  the  second  cylinder  the  clinker  is  conveyed  to  the 
crushers. 

In  burning  the  raw  materials  at  a high  temperature  the  clinker 
thus  formed  is  a very  hard  semi-vitrified  mass  which  must  be  pulver- 
ized to  a fine  flour  before  it  can  be  called  cement.  The  best  Portland 
cements  are  now  ground  so  that  from  90  to  95  per  cent  will  pass  a 
100-mesh  sieve.  The  process  requires  a great  amount  of  power  and 
heavy  machinery. 

It  is  estimated  by  Mr.  E.  C.  Eckel  that,  in  a Portland  cement 
plant  using  the  dry  process  of  manufacture,  it  requires  about  the  same 
amount  of  power  and  similar  machinery  to  crush  the  clinker  as  that 
used  in  crushing  the  raw  materials.  “It  must  be  remembered  that 
for  every  barrel  of  cement  produced,  about  600  pounds  of  raw  ma- 
terial must  be  pulverized,  while  only  a scant  400  pounds  of  clinker  will 
be  treated ; that  the  large  crushers  required  for  some  raw  materials  can 
be  dispensed  with  in  crushing  clinker,  and  that  the  raw  side  rarely  runs 
full  time.”* 

RETARDER  FOR  QUICK-SETTING  CEMENTS. 

A small  amount  of  calcium  sulphate,  usually  in  the  form  of  crude 
gypsum  or  plaster  of  Paris,  is  necessary  in  the  manufacture  of  Port- 
land cement  to  retard  the  quick-setting,  high-limed  clinker  produced 
in  the  rotary  kilns.  The  amount  used  in  most  American  plants  varies 
from  2 to  3 per  cent.  Used  in  large  quantities  it  may  even  accelerate 
the  set  and  greatly  weaken  the  cement.  The  calcium  sulphate  should 
be  intimately  mixed  with  the  cement,  and  that  this  may  be  thoroughly 
done  it  is  usually  put  in  and  ground  with  the  clinker. 

PORTLAND  CEMENT  MATERIALS  OF  MISSISSIPPI. 

GENERAL  GEOLOGY. 

Cement  materials  of  Mississippi  consist  of  hard  limestones,  chalk, 
clays  and  shales.  Inasmuch  as  the  chalk  of  this  State  is  a compara- 
tively hard  rock  it  will  be  treated  as  a limestone. 

Limestone,  the  principal  ingredient  necessary  in  the  manufacture 
of  Portland  cement,  is  found  in  four  geologic  periods  of  the  State, 

* Limes,  Cements  and  Plasters,  1906,  p.  631. 


DEVONIAN  ROCKS. 


37 


widely  differing  from  each  other  in  age  and  location.  In  each  period 
shales  or  clays  overlie  the  limestones.  The  four  periods  will  be 
described  in  the  order  here  given. 

(1)  Devonian.  (4)  Tertiary. 

(2)  Carboniferous.  Vicksburg  limestone. 

(3)  Cretaceous. 

Selma  chalk. 

Devonian. 

Along  the  Tennessee  River,  and  for  a distance  up  all  the  streams 
flowing  into  the  Tennessee  from  the  State  of  Mississippi,  are  beds  of 
limestone  representative  of  the  Lower  Devonian.  The  line  of  separa- 
tion of  the  Devonian  and  Carboniferous  rocks  has  not  been  mapped 
in  Mississippi.  The  Devonian  rocks  are  represented  by  a dark  gray 
limestone  and  interbedded  shales,  with  an  occasional  stratum  of  fine- 
grained standstone.  The  limestone  contains  a high  per  cent  of  insol- 
uble matter  which  occurs  in  chemical  combination  and  not  in  the  form 
of  free  silica  or  sand. 

The  following  section  of  the  Devonian  on  Yellow  Creek,  Tisho- 
mingo County,  was  obtained  by  the  writer:* 

Section  of  Devonian  on  Yellow  Creek. 

Sec.  22,  T.  1 N.,  R.  10  E. 

Thin-bedded,  impure  limestone  at  base,  changing  gradu 

ally  to  a bluish  limestone  at  top  of  cliff 

Compact  blue  limestone,  non-fossiliferous 

Dark  gray  limestone  containing  numerous  Devonian  fos- 
sils  10 

Dark  pure  limestone  to  water’s  edge 5 

On  the  north  bank  of  Yellow  Creek,  near  its  mouth,  the  limestone 
is  overlain  by  thin  strata  of  aluminous  sandstone  and  shale. 

A reproduction  of  the  outcrop  near  the  mouth  of  Yellow  Creek 
is  found  on  Whetstone  Creek  near  Short  postoffice. 

Section  on  A.  L.  Bugg’s  Land , near  Mouth  of  Whetstone  Creek. t 

Feet 

100 

30 
20 

♦Geology  and  Mineral  Resources  of  Miss.,  U.  S.  Geol.  Surv.  Bull.  No.  283,  p.  9. 
tlbid  p.  10. 


Angular  chert,  flint  and  hornstone 

Dark  blue  shale  containing  iron  pyrite;  very  fossiliferous 

in  lower  part 

Thin-bedded,  fine-grained,  shaly  limestone,  with  thin 
bands  of  fine-grained  sandstone  or  whetstone  varying 
from  a fraction  of  an  inch  to  12  inches  in  thickness.  . 


Feet 

95 

40 


38 


CEMENT  MATERIALS. 


It  is  quite  probable  that  the  dark  blue  limestone  which  is  found 
at  the  mouth  of  Bear  Creek  is  the  uppermost  member  of  the  Devonian. 

The  Devonian  of  this  State  includes  shale  and  limestone  suitable 
for  hydraulic  and  Portland  cements. 

TABLE  12. 

ANALYSES  OF  DEVONIAN  LIMESTONE  FROM  TISHOMINGO  COUNTY. 


1 

2 

3 

4 

Insoluble  matter  (Si02) 

54.201 

35.281 

42.00 

48.18 

Alumina  (A12Oj) 

1.064 

1.914 

1.98 

3.43 

Iron  oxide  (Fe*Oj) 

0.903 

1.581 

6.02 

3.13 

Lime  (CaO) 

23.247 

32.603 

23.25 

39.47 

Magnesia  (MgO) 

0.788 

0.630 

0.27 

3.19 

Carbonic  acid 

15.572  1 

| 27.643  | 

' *24.10 

5.06 

Organic  matter  and  water 

3.752 j 

0.40 

0.40 

Potash 

0.473 

0.348 

Sulphur  trioxide 

1.50 

2.23 

1,  2.  Dr.  E.  W.  Hilgard,  analyst. 
3,  4.  Dr.  W.  F.  Hand,  analyst. 


Carboniferous. 

The  Carboniferous  rocks  in  Mississippi  include  beds  of  limestone, 
shale,  chert  and  sandstone  extending  in  age  from  the  Ordovician  to 
and  including  the  Mississippian.  Oolitic  limestone  suitable  for  the 
manufacture  of  Portland  cement  is  found  near  the  top  of  the  Carbon- 
iferous rocks  in  Mississippi,  and  is  the  equivalent  of  the  St.  Genevieve 
limestone  of  western  Kentucky,  and  the  famous  building  stone  of 
Bedford,  Indiana.  In  Alabama  this  rock  is  quarried  for  burning  lime 
and  building  stone. 

The  oolitic  limestone  is  dark  gray  to  white,  and  is  made  up  almost 
exclusively  of  small,  rounded  concretions  called  oolites.  It  is  practi- 
cally free  from  impurities.  A thickness  of  30  feet  or  more  is  exposed 
in  the  bluffs  on  Bear  Creek  as  far  south  as  Mingo. 

The  distribution  of  the  oolitic  limestone  and  accompanying  shales 
is  confined  to  that  part  of  Tishomingo  County  lying  north  of  Mingo, 
along  Bear  Creek  and  its  tributaries,  and  in  one  locality  on  Macky’s 
Creek.  In  the  hills  to  the  west  the  Paleozoic  rocks  are  covered  by 
later  deposits  of  Cretaceous  and  Lafayette. 

On  the  west  side  of  Cypress  Pond,  about  1 mile  north  of  west  of 
the  steel  bridge  across  Bear  Creek  near  Mingo,  on  land  now  belonging 
to  Mr.  William  Southward,  the  limestone  forms  a bluff  30  to  35  feet 
high.  Its  thickness  below  the  surface  has  not  been  determined.  The 


*Volatile  matter. 


CARBONIFEROUS  ROCKS. 


39 


limestone  is  overlain  by  a bed  of  dark  blue  shale  which  weathers  to  a 
tough  blue  clay.  The  top  of  the  limestone  along  the  pond  has  about 
the  same  elevation  as  the  base  of  the  shale  bed  in  the  section  at  the 
steel  bridge  given  below,  so  that  the  two  may  be  taken  together  as  one 
continuous  section,  the  one  at  the  bridge  being  a continuation  upward 
of  the  Cypress  Pond  section. 

Limestone  outcrops  in  many  of  the  branches  flowing  into  Cypress 
Pond,  and  is  frequently  struck  in  wells  on  the  west  side  of  Bear 
Creek.  Still  farther  north,  on  the  Allsboro  and  Iuka  road,  the  oolitic 
limestone  outcrops  in  sections  22,  26  and  27,  T.  4 N.,  R.  11  E.  The 
oolitic  limestone  near  Mingo  is  overlain  by  a bed  of  shale  23  feet  thick, 
separated  by  a thin  stratum  of  impure  limestone  8 inches  thick. 

The  following  is  a section  of  the  bluff  at  the  steel  bridge  near 
Mingo: 


Section  of  the  Bluff  at  the  Steel  Bridge  near  Mingo. 


Residuary  soil  and  Lafayette  at  the  surface x feet 

Heavy-bedded  limestone  about 20  feet 

Compact,  blue  shale 15  feet 

Thin  ledge  of  impure  limestone,  upper  3 inches  studded 

with  fossils 8 inches 

Thinly  laminated  blue  shale  with  an  occasional  frag- 
ment of  impure  dark  limestone,  water’s  edge 8 feet 


The  lowest  shale  bed  is  thinly  laminated  and  contains  more  or  less 
fine  sand  between  the  laminae.  The  upper  bed  is  more  thickly  lami- 
nated and  freer  from  impurities. 

The  composition  of  the  above  limestones  and  shales  is  given 
below : 


TABLE  J3. 

ANALYSES  OF  CARBONIFEROUS  LIMESTONES  AND  SHALE.  TISHO- 
MINGO COUNTY. 


1 

2 

3 

Silica  (Si02) 

1.57 

10.91 

54.46 

Alumina  (Al2Oa) 

1.94 

8.17 

14.92 

Iron  oxide  (Fe203) 

1.69 

5.00 

12.50 

Lime  (CaO) 

52.75 

47.06 

2.56 

Magnesia  (MgO) 

36 

0.16 

0.00 

Volatile  matter  (C02) 

40.80 

27.00 

13.30 

Sulphur  (SOj) 

32 

0.85 

.85 

Moisture 

1.10 

2.30 

99.48 

100.25 

100.89 

1.  Limestone  from  Cypress  Pond  near  William  Southward’s  house. 

2.  Limestone  from  Mingo  bridge,  Bear  Creek. 

3.  Shale  from  Mingo  bridge,  Bear  Creek. 


40 


CEMENT  MATERIALS. 


CRETACEOUS. 

TUSCALOOSA  CLAYS. 

The  Tuscaloosa  clays  are  well  displayed  in  northeastern  Missis- 
sippi. They  have  been  more  carefully  studied  in  Tishomingo  County, 
where  they  occur  in  thick  deposits  over  large  areas.  These  clays 
overlap  the  Carboniferous  and  Devonian  limestones  and  in  some  cases 
outcrops  of  limestone  and  clay  occur  in  the  same  section. 

The  following  analyses  are  characteristic  of  the  clays  of  Tisho- 
mingo and  Itawamba  counties: 


TABLE  14. 

ANALYSES  OF  TUSCALOOSA  CLAYS  OF  MISSISSIPPI  * 


Silica 

(Si02) 

if 

•S'S  i 

o g 
£ 

0 

1 
O 

J 

Magnesia 

(MgO) 

Sulphur  trioxide 
(SO*) 

Moisture 

Loss  on  ignition 

Pink  clay,  6 miles  north  of  Iuka, 

Tishomingo  County 

t38.11 

36.42 

11.73 

.60 

.14 

Tr. 

.87 

11.96 

White  clay,  6 miles  southeast  of 

Iuka,  Tishomingo  County 

t66 . 85 

20.54 

3.77 

.21 

.18 

Tr. 

.59 

8.00 

White  potter’s  clay,  5 miles  south  of 

Iuka,  Tishomingo  County 

t68.65 

18.99 

2.77 

.20 

.20 

Tr. 

1.09 

7.34 

White  clay,  5 miles  south  of  Iuka, 

Tishomingo  County 

J80.07 

11.46 

.57 

.12 

.37 

n.d. 

! X6.81 

.60 

Tuscaloosa  clay,  15  miles  south  of 

Iuka,  Tishomingo  County 

t80.03 

12.00 

1.68 

.24 

.26 

Tr. 

.48 

4.82 

Tuscaloosa  clay,  12  miles  south  of 

Tiilra  Tishomingo  County 

§90.877 

2.214 

.126 

.140 

Tr. 

n.d. 

X6.93 

White  potter’s  clay,  14  miles  south- 

east of  Fulton,  Itawamba  County 

t59.12 

27.44 

4.39 

.34 

.28 

Tr. 

.54 

7.40 

White  potter’s  clay,  14  miles  south- 

east of  Fulton,  Itawamba  County 

t62.58 

27.58 

1.57 

.40 

Tr. 

Tr. 

.77 

6.77 

Tuscaloosa  clay,  14  miles  southeast 

of  Fulton.  Itawamba  County. . . . 

t71 .53 

14.46 

4.14 

.62 

.55 

n.d. 

2.17 

S 5.91 

SELMA  CHALK. 

The  Selma  chalk  of  Mississippi  includes  a great  thickness  of  chalky 
limestone  commonly  known  as  “rotten  limestone”  of  Cretaceous  age. 
In  Bulletin  No.  283,  U.  S.  Geological  Survey,  the  writer  describes  the 
Selma  chalk  as  “a  mass  of  loosely  semi-cemented  lime  carbonate,  the 


♦Bull.  283  U.  S.  Geological  Survey,  Crider,  pp.  51-55. 
tW.  F.  Hand,  State  chemist,  analyst. 
tJ.  Blodgett  Britton  of  Philadelphia,  Pa.,  analyst. 
§Dr.  E.  W.  Hilgard,  analyst. 

X Water  and  organic  matter. 


SELMA  CHALK. 


41 


upper  division  of  which  is  of  exceptional  purity.  Where  it  is  typi- 
cally exposed  along  the  larger  streams  it  bleaches  to  a white  appear- 
ance and  is  called  the  ‘white  chalk’  bluffs.  To  the  casual  observer 
the  entire  formation  has  much  the  same  appearance,  but  it  may  be 
separated  into  three  natural  divisions,  based  primarily  on  chemical 
analysis,  (a)  the  transition  beds  at  the  base,  (6)  the  ‘blue  rock,’  or 
more  clayey  un weathered  portion,  and  ( c ) the  rotten  limestone,  or 
chalk,  including  the  upper  portion  of  the  formation. 

“(a)  The  lowest  division  contains  a large  amount  of  free  sand  which 
was  washed  into  the  Selma  sea  from  the  Eutaw  and  the  older  land  sur- 
face to  the  east.  This  forms  the  transition  beds  from  the  extremely 
sandy  strata  of  the  Eutaw  to  the  deep-sea  deposits  of  lime  carbonate 
which  characterizes  the  Selma  chalk.  The  amount  of  sand  is  greatest 
at  the  base  and  becomes  less  and  less  upward  until  it  finally  disappears 
entirely.”  This  lower  portion  would  not  be  suitable  for  cement  on 
account  of  the  great  amount  of  free  sand  it  contains.  Fortunately, 
however,  the  sandy  portion  is  confined  to  the  lower  division  of  the 
formation  and  can  be  easily  avoided  in  using  the  overlying  limestone 
for  cement. 

‘‘(6)  The  middle  division  contains  a relatively  large  amount  of 
clay  and  when  freshly  dug  is  of  a bluish  color.  It  is  found  in  the  deep 
wells  and  recognized  by  the  drillers  as  ‘blue  rock.’  The  great  amount 
of  clay  in  the  lime  carbonate  renders  the  rock  impervious  to  water. 
The  fine  supply  of  artesian  water  stored  in  the  underlying  Eutaw 
sands  is  held  in  place  and  prevented  from  escaping  upward  by  means 
of  the  ‘blue  rock’  of  the  Selma. 

(i c ) ‘‘The  uppermost  division  contains  a greater  amount  of  lime 
carbonate  and  much  less  clay  than  the  ‘blue  rock’  and  likewise  a 
smaller  amount  of  free  silica  than  the  lowest  division.  Some  of  the 
analyses  of  this  chalk  show  98  per  cent  of  calcium  carbonate. 

‘‘In  places  a hard  crystalline  limestone,  somewhat  silicified,  forms 
a capping  to  some  of  the  hills  of  the  Selma.  Hard  flint  rock  and  a 
thin  strata  of  sandstone  are  reported  in  a deep  well-boring  at  Liv- 
ingston, Ala.” 

The  Selma  in  Mississippi  corresponds  to  the  formation  of  the  same 
name  in  Alabama.  The  white  chalk  bluffs  along  Tombigbee,  Warrior 
and  Alabama  rivers  may  be  seen  in  numerous  places  in  Dallas,  Hale, 


42 


CEMENT  MATERIALS. 


Sumter  and  Green  counties,  Alabama.  It  is  all  of  the  same  geologic 
age,  and  once  known  it  may  be  easily  recognized. 

THICKNESS. 

The  Selma  attains  its  greatest  thickness  in  central  Alabama,  where 
it  is  reported  to  be  1,200  feet.  It  decreases  in  thickness  to  the  east, 
disappearing  entirely  in  the  eastern  part  of  the  State.  East,  of  Mont- 
gomery the  three  divisions  are  mapped  as  one  formation.  In  western 
Alabama  it  has  a thickness  of  925  to  950  feet,  while  in  Oktibbeha 
County,  Mississippi,  it  has  a thickness  of  about  800  feet.  From  this 
point  northward  the  formation  continues  to  thin  and  finally  disappears 
entirely  near  Camden,  Tennessee.  The  area  of  the  State  underlain 
by  the  Selma  is  shown  by  the  light  green  on  the  map.  The  region  is 
known  as  the  “prairies”  and  may  be  easily  recognized  by  the  dark 
rich  loams  at  the  surface.  The  disintegration  of  the  Selma  forms  one 
of  the  richest  soils  in  the  State.  In  Alabama  the  Selma  area  forms 
one  of  the  richest  cotton  belts  in  the  South  and  is  known  as  the 
“Black  belt.” 

In  comparatively  recent  geologic  times  the  entire  area  of  the 
Selma  was  covered  by  the  Lafayette,  a thin  deposit  of  sandy  loam. 
The  greater  part  of  the  Lafayette  has  been  carried  away  by  the  streams. 
In  the  inter-stream  areas  however,  and  on  the  more  level  lands  near 
the  streams,  there  are  still  small  patches  of  Lafayette  which  have 
suffered  but  little  erosion  since  its  deposition.  In  consequence  of  this 
fact  there  are  two  distinct  and  widely  different  soils  which  are  found 
in  this  region.  These  are  the  “post  oak”  and  the  “prairie”  soils. 
The  Lafayette  in  this  area  has  a maximum  thickness  of  about  13  feet. 

The  “post  oak”  soils  are  usually  found  on  the  higher  inter-stream 
areas  where  there  has  been  least  erosion.  . The  soil  is  poor  and  pro- 
duces a scrubby  growth  of  post  oak  and  black  jack.  In  the  early 
settlement  of  the  region  the  “post  oak”  land  was  first  cleared,  but  at 
present  it  is  mostly  used  for  grazing. 

The  “prairie  soils”  are  found  on  the  rolling  lands  from  which 
the  Lafayette  has  been  entirely  removed  so  that  the  rich  black  loam, 
formed  by  the  disintegration  of  the  -underlying  Selma  limestone,  is 
at  the  sufrace.  The  “prairie  soils,”  therefore,  are  residual  soils  in 
situ , and  form  the  most  fertile  lands  of  eastern  Mississippi. 


SELMA  CHALK. 


43 


In  places  all  the  Lafayette  and  even  the  residual  soil  of  the  Selma 
have  been  removed  by  erosion,  leaving  the  white  chalky  limestone  of 
the  Selma  at  the  surface.  On  looking  for  the  outcropping  Selma  it 
may  be  more  readily  found  along  the  streams,  on  the  steep  hillsides 
and  in  the  railroad  cuts. 

Inasmuch  as  this  is  to  be  the  final  report  on  the  cement  materials 
of  the  State  for  some  time,  space  will  be  taken  to  describe  a large 
number  of  outcrops  of  the  Selma  limestone,  much  of  which  is  very 
similar  in  appearance.  A fair  series  of  analyses  has  been  made  of 
the  limestone  from  different  localities,  giving  some  idea  of  the  value 
of  the  Selma  for  cement.  It  must  be  understood,  however,  that  at  no 
locality  has  the  Selma  been  found  to  contain  all  the  constituents 
necessary  in  the  manufacture  of  either  hydraulic  or  Portland  cement. 
It  becomes  valuable  as  a cement  product  when  used  in  connection 
with  clay.  All  the  limestone  found  in  the  Selma  area  is  not  of  value 
for  cement  because  of  the  lack  of  good  clay  near  it.  Only  those  out- 
crops, therefore,  which  are  near  good  clay  outcrops  can  profitably  be 
utilized  for  cement.  The  clay  in  the  geologic  section  immediately 
overlying  the  Selma,  known  as  the  Porter’s  Creek,  is  suitable  for  mix- 
ing with  the  limestone.  The  possibility  of  using  this  clay  will  be  taken 
up  under  the  head  of  Porter’s  Creek  clay. 

DISTRIBUTION. 

That  part  of  the  State  embraced  within  the  area  represented  on 
the  map  by  the  light  green  color  is  underlain  by  the  Selma  chalk. 
The  limestone  does  not  show  at  the  surface  over  the  entire  area 
shown  on  the  map  owing  to  the  covering  of  sandy  loam  and  residual 
soil  which,  over  the  greater  part  of  the  area,  completely  covers  the 
limestone.  This  covering  is  comparatively  thin,  as  is  shown  in  wells, 
railway  cuts,  along  the  streams  and  on  many  hillsides  where  the 
atmospheric  waters  have  carried  away  the  soil  covering,  leaving  the 
Selma  limestone  exposed  at  the  surface. 

Corinth  and  Vicinity. — The  town  of  Corinth  is  built  in  the  valley 
of  a small  stream  which  flows  into  Tuscumbia  River.  On  the  west 
side  of  the  town  is  a low  range  of  hills  which  rise  30  to  40  feet  above 
the  valley.  About  J of  a mile  west  of  the  station  on  the  Southern 
Railway,  is  a cut  through  a small  ridge  showing  from  5 to  8 feet  of 
surface  sandy  loam,  with  an  equal  thickness  of  Selma  limestone, 


44 


CEMENT  MATERIALS. 


which  extends  to  the  bottom  of  the  cut.  The  Selma  at  this  place  can 
hardly  be  called  a limestone.  It  is  the  “blue  rock”  which  occurs 
near  the  bottom  of  the  formation,  and  is  more  properly  a compact 
calcareous  clay  which  can  be  broken  into  rectangular  blocks.  There 
are  small  needle-like  crystals  of  selenite  in  the  cracks  and  on  exposed 
surfaces.  The  thickness  of  the  Selma  at  Corinth  is  less  than  100  feet. 

TABLE  15. 

ANALYSIS  OF  SELMA  LIMESTONE  FROM  CORINTH. 

Silica  (SiOj) 

Alumina  (AljOi) 

Iron  oxide  (Fe2Oi). . . . 

Lime  (CaO) 

Magnesia  (MgO) 

Volatile  matter  (C02). 

Sulphur  trioxide  (SO*) 

92.19 


25.40 

6.88 

8.62 

26.37 

.58 

23.70 

0.64 


The  above  analysis  shows  a high  per  cent  of  silica,  which  is  char- 
acteristic of  the  lower  beds  of  the  Selma.  Higher  in  the  formation 
the  percentage  of  lime  steadily  increases,  while  the  siliceous  ma- 
terial decreases  correspondingly.  Purer  limestone  is  found  in  the 
railway  cuts  west  of  Corinth. 

The  Selma  may  be  found  underlying  the  surface  covering  for  6 
to^lO  miles  west  of  Corinth,  and  for  3 miles  east.  It  gradually  thins 
to  the  east  and  finally  disappears  completely  in  the  low  north  and 
south  range  of  hills  3 miles  east  of  town. 

At  the  western  end  of  the  90  foot  cut  on  the  new  line  of  the  Illinois 
Central  Railway,  3 miles  east  of  Corinth,  the  blue  limestone  of  the 
Selma  extends  to  the  bottom  of  the  cut.  At  the  eastern  end  it  forms 
a thin  stratum  and  finally  disappears  completely.  The  lowest  mem- 
ber of  the  Selma  is  underlain  by  a bed  of  oxidized,  calcareous,  sand- 
bearing fossils. 

The  Selma  is  exposed  in  almost  every  cut  of  any  size  along  the 
Southern  Railway  from  Corinth  to  the  Tennessee  State  line.  A few 
hundred  yards  west  of  Wenasoga,  12  feet  or  more  of  bluish  calcareous 
clay  are  exposed  in  the  railway  cut.  At  this  point  the  Selma  is  much 
thicker  than  it  is  at  Corinth.  At  the  little  town  of  Chewalla,  across 
the  line  in  Tennessee,  it  was  penetrated  in  a well  at  a depth  of  350 
feet.  There  is  quite  a thickness  of  overlying  transported  soil,  so 
that  the  limestone  is  at  least  300  feet  thick. 


SELMA  CHALK. 


45 


The  Selma  is  encountered  in  digging  wells  at  Danville,  Rienzi 
and  Thrasher,  but  these  towns  are  near  the  eastern  edge  of  the  Selma, 
which,  as  is  shown  by  the  well  records,  contains  more  or  less  sand. 
These  towns  are  located  on  the  Mobile  and  Ohio  Railway,  which  follows 
along  the  second  bottoms  of  the  Tuscumbia  River,  and  consequently 
there  are  no  outcrops  of  the  Selma  at  the  surface. 

Booneville  and  Vicinity. — In  the  deep  cut  on  the  Mobile  and  Ohio 
Railway,  in  the  town  of  Booneville,  the  typical  Selma  limestone  is 
exposed.  There  is  a thick  covering  of  sandy  loam  (Lafayette)  over- 
lying  the  limestone  in  the  vicinity  of  Booneville.  Many  of  the  wells 
obtain  their  supply  of  water  from  the  base  of  the  Lafayette.  The 
compact  nature  of  the  Selma  prevents  the  water  from  penetrating 
it.  There  are  many  small  springs  found  at  the  contact  between  the 
Lafayette  and  the  underlying  Selma. 

The  following  record  of  the  Booneville  Waterworks  Company’s 
well,  furnished  by  Mr.  A.  W.  Hurley,  driller,  will  give  some  idea  of 
the  thickness  of  the  Selma  at  this  place: 


Section  of  Booneville  Waterwork's  Well. 

13.  Surface  red  clay 

12.  Selma  “blue  rock” 

11.  Bluish  green  sandy  clay  with  shells 

10.  Blue  sand  containing  water 

9.  Hard  rock 

8.  Blue  sand  containing  water 

7.  Blue  hard  rock 

6.  Clay  (“soapstone”) .. . 

5.  Sand 

4.  Clay  (“soapstone”) . . . 

3.  Sand 

2.  Hard  rock  at  307  feet 
1.  Gray  sand  containing  green  sand  grains 


Feet 

18 

52 

3 
40 

1 

7 

4 
188 


4 

35 


Total  depth  of  well 


347 


From  the  above  record  it  will  be  seen  that  the  limestone  at  Boone- 
ville is  52  feet  thick.  One-fourth  of  a mile  east  of  this  town  it  is  or  ly 
25  feet  thick,  and  f of  a mile  east  it  cuts  out  entirely.  It  outcrops 
in  the  hills  west  of  the  town  and  is  encountered  in  all  the  deep  wells 
as  far  west  as  Jumpertown.  The  Mobile  and  Ohio  Railway  follows, 
approximately,  the  eastern  limit  of  the  Selma  between  Booneville  and 
Tupelo.  The  eastward  extension  of  the  Selma  at  Booneville  is  due 
to  the  fact  that  the  divide  between  the  waters  of  Tuscumbia  and 


46 


CEMENT  MATERIALS. 


Tombigbee  rivers  have  suffered  but  little  erosion.  South  of  the 
divide  the  headwaters  of  Tombigbee  River  have  carried  away  a 
large  amount  of  the  Selma  and  caused  the  contact  between  the  Selma 
and  the  underlying  Eutaw  green  sands  to  swing  westward  in  the 
vicinity  of  Wheeler,  Baldwin  and  Guntown. 

jj|  At  Guntown  the  lowest  beds  of  the  Selma  are  exposed  in  the 
railway  cut  just  north  of  the  station.  There  is  a compact  ledge  of 
fossiliferous  limestone  about  2 feet  thick  underlain  by  a bed  of  green 
sand  which  extends  to  the  bottom  of  the  cut.  This  doubtless  cor- 
responds to  strata  No.  11  in  the  Booneville  section.  There  is  a strong 
southward  dip  of  the  Selma  as  shown  in  the  railroad  Cut  at  Guntown. 
The  main  body  of  the  Selma  lies  west  of  Guntown.  The  basal  mem- 
bers here,  as  at  all  other  places  where  they  are  exposed,  contain  too 
much  sand  to  be  used  in  the  manufacture  of  Portland  cement. 

Tupelo  and  Vicinity. — The  town  of  Tupelo  is  built  in  the  valley  of 
Old  Town  Creek,  a large  tributary  to  Tombigbee  River.  In  the 
lower  portions  of  the  town  the  alluvial  soil  is  20  feet  thick.  The  hills 
to  the  east  have  a thin  covering  of  Lafayette.  To  the  northwest  the 
Lafayette  and  residual  Selma  form  the  fertile  farming  lands.  The 
only  evidence  of  the  presence  of  the  Selma  here  is  found  in  the  wells 
which  extend  below  the  surface  soils.  Below  is  a record  of  an  average 
artesian  well  in  Tupelo: 

Well  Record  at  Tupelo. 


R.  B.  McVay,  Driller.  Feet 

Surface  soil 20 

“Blue  rock”  with  some  sand  (Selma) 100 

Blue  limestone  (Selma) 130 

Fine  gray  sand,  water-bearing 10 

Clay  (“soapstone”) 4 

White  sand,  water-bearing 10 

Clay  (“soapstone”) 20 

Fine  white  sand,  thickness  undetermined. 


The  above  record  shows  230  feet  of  Selma  limestone.  The  upper 
100  feet  of  “blue  rock”  is  reported  as  containing  some  sand.  This  is 
perhaps  a calcareous  green  sand  or  else  it  is  a horizon  in  the  Selma 
not  yet  discovered  at  the  surface.  The  latter  theory  is  hardly  prob- 
able, however,  since  so  great  a thickness  would  not  have  escaped 
detection  in  the  detailed  work  done  on  the  formation  in  Alabama  and 
along  the  Tombigbee  River  in  Mississippi. 


SELMA  CHALK. 


47 


The  first  cut  on  the  Mobile  and  Ohio  Railway  south  of  Tupelo 
exposes  the  Selma  from  the  surface  to  the  bottom  of  the  cut.  All 
the  deep  cuts  from  here  to  Verona  penetrate  the  surface  soils  and 
reach  the  Selma.  It  also  outcrops  on  the  sides  of  the  wagon  road 
and  in  the  open  field  about  miles  south  of  Tupelo.  In  other  places 
along  the  road  between  Tupelo  and  Verona,  and  in  numerous  places 
west  of  Verona,  the  Lafayette  has  been  removed  by  erosion,  exposing 
the  Selma.  On  the  more  level  lands  the  residual  soil  of  the  Selma 
forms  the  well  known  “prairie  soil.”  During  the  rainy  season  the 
constant  kneading  of  the  “prairie  soil”  by  wheels  of  vehicles  and 
horses’  feet  forms  a tough  plastic  clay  which,  when  once  recognized, 
may  never  be  mistaken.  Even  if  there  is  no  outcrop  of  the  Selma 
near,  the  “prairie  soil”  indicates  that  the  Selma  is  but  a few  feet,  or 
perhaps  a few  inches,  below  the  surface. 

A sample  of  the  Selma  collected  from  the  roadside  about  2J  miles 
south  of  Tupelo  shows  the  following  analysis. 

TABLE  16. 

ANALYSIS  OF  SELMA  LIMESTONE  2*  MILES  SOUTH  OF  TUPELO. 


Silica  (Si02) 22.76 

Altunina  (AI2O3) 4.56 

Iron  oxide  (FeaOs) 6.46 

Lime  (CaO) 34.31 

Magnesia  (MgO) .05 

Volatile  matter  (CO2) 28.25 

Sulphur  trioxide  (SO3) .43 

Moisture 2.10 


Fine  exposures  of  the  Selma  are  found  on  Coonewah  Creek  about 
5 miles  west  of  Tupelo.  It  is  overlain  in  places  by  6 to  10  feet  of 
yellow  clay.  The  Selma  continues  westward  to  within  3 or  4 miles 
of  Pontotoc.  In  southeastern  Pontotoc  County  it  is  reported  to  be 
750  feet  thick. 


A sample  of  Selma  collected  by  W.  N.  Logan  from  a point  1 mile 
west  of  Tupelo,  on  the  Tupelo  and  Pontotoc  road,  shows  the  follow- 
ing analysis: 

TABLE  17. 


ANALYSIS  OF  SELMA  LIMESTONE  1 MILE  WEST  OF  TUPELO. 


Silica  (Si02) 14.84 

Alumina  (AI2O3) 15.59 

Iron  oxide  (Fe20a) 4.50 

Lime  (CaO) 32.89 

Magnesia  (MgO) .41 

Volatile  matter  (CO2) 27.10 

Sulphur  trioxide  (SO3) 3.30 

Moisture 1.08 


99.71 


48 


CEMENT  MATERIALS. 


The  thickness  of  the  Selma  as  shown  in  the  wells  at  Verona  is 
about  the  same  as  it  is  in  Tupelo.  The  following  is  a record  of  one 
of  the  wells  in  Verona: 


Well  Record  at  Verona. 


R.  B.  McVay,  Driller.  Feet 

Surface  soil 21 

Light  colored  Selma 80 

Blue  limestone,  Selma 160 

Gray  sand,  water-bearing 10 

Compact,  sticky  sand 30 

Gray  sand,  water-bearing 15 

Black  clay,  “soapstone” 20 

Fine  gray  sand,  water-bearing x 


The  entire  thickness  of  the  Selma  here  is  240  feet.  No  sand  is 
reported  from  the  upper  80  feet  as  in  the  well  at  Tupelo.  The  well 
is  located  in  the  lowest  part  of  the  town  near  the  station.  The  Selma 
comes  to  the  surface  in  places  just  west  of  town. 

Okolona  and  Vicinity. — One  of  the  best  exposures  of  the  Selma 
limestone  in  the  northern  and  central  portions  of  the  Selma  area  is 
found  in  the  town  and  vicinity  of  Okolona.  In  a few  places  the 
Lafayette  sandy  loam  is  present,  but  from  the  greater  portion  of 
the  area  it  has  been  removed,  leaving  large  patches  of  exposed  lime- 
stone known  as  “bald  prairies.”  The  limestone  has  become  white  by 
reason  of  long  exposure  to  sun  and  rain.  In  this  respect  it  resembles 
the  “white  chalk”  exposed  in  the  bluffs  along  Noxubee  and  Tom- 
bigbee  rivers. 

The  numerous  outcrops  of  the  Selma  in  southeastern  Chickasaw 
and  western  Clay  counties  have  been  carefully  described  by  Dr. 
Hilgard.* 

The  country  is  dotted  with  outcrops  of  the  Selma  along  Chooka- 
tonkchie,  Houlka,  Oka  Tibbeha  or  Tibby  creeks,  and  on  the  eastern 
slope  of  Pontotoc  Ridge,  projections  of  which  extend  southward 
between  the  above  mentioned  streams.  The  limestone  in  north- 
western Clay  County  has  been  penetrated  in  wells  at  a depth  of  about 
500  feet. 

A sample  of  the  limestone  from  the  railroad  cut  at  the  Mobile  and 
Ohio  station,  Okolona,  was  burned  in  a forge  for  a period  of  15  min- 


* Agriculture  and  Geology  of  Mississippi,  pp.  79-81. 


SELMA  CHALK. 


49 


utes.  The  rock  was  heated  to  a white  heat  and  slaked  by  pouring 
water  on  it.  It  immediately  broke  down  into  a beautiful  white 
lime.  The  following  analyses  were  made  of  this  limestone: 

TABLE  18. 

ANALYSES  OF  SELMA  LIMESTONE  FROM  OKOLONA. 


1 2 

Silica  (Si02) 8.80  8.70 

Aluimna  (A1,0«) 2.86  0.00 

Iron  oxide  (Fe203) 4.08  6.00 

Lime  carbonate  (CaO) 45.51  45.62 

Magnesium  carbonate  (MgO) .36  1.72 

Volatile  matter  (C02) 31.11  34.40 

Sulphur  trioxide  (SO3) .38  1.11 

Moisture 6.35  1.10 


The  following  analysis  of  the  same  limestone  was  made  by  Dr. 
E.  W.  Hilgard.* 


Insoluble  matter  (mostly  silica)  (Si02) 10.903 

Alumina  (Al203) 1.957 

Peroxide  of  iron  (Fe2Os) 1.421 

Lime  (CaO) +45.791 

Magnesia  (MgO) +0 . 877 

Carbon  dioxide  (C02) 35.725 

Alkalies  (K20,  Na20) 0.568 

Organic  matter  and  water 2.840 


The  eastern  edge  of  the  Selma  south  of  Tupelo  follows,  approxi- 
mately, the  boundary  between  Itawamba  and  Lee  counties  south- 
ward to  the  Monroe  County  line.  From  here  to  Columbus  it  is  almost 
a due  north  and  south  line,  rarely  extending  more  than  3 miles  west 
of  Tombigbee  River.  Outcrops  are  frequent  from  the  eastern  to  the 
western  borders  of  the  formation. 

Starkville  and  Vicinity. — In  the  eastern  half  of  Oktibbeha  County 
the  Selma  limestone  is  characteristically  developed.  A few  small 
patches  of  the  Lafayette  still  remain  on  some  of  the  divides.  The 
rest  of  the  surface  is  formed  by  the  residual  loam  of  the  “prairie 
soil,”  and  the  white  rock  of  the  Selma. 

One  to  ten  feet  of  Selma  limestone  may  be  seen  in  almost  every 
cut  along  the  Illinois  Central  Railway  from  Starkville  to  West  Point. 

Similar  outcrops  occur  along  the  Mobile  and  Ohio  Railway  from 
Starkville  td  Artesia. 


♦Geology  and  Agriculture  of  Mississippi,  1860,  p.  101. 
fEquals  lime  carbonate  (CaCOs)  81.77. 

^Equals  magnesium  carbonate  (MgCOs)  1.84. 


50 


CEMENT  MATERIALS. 


The  thickness  of  the  Selma  in  the  city  well  at  Starkville  is  about 
750  feet,  with  50  feet  or  more  exposed  in  the  hills  to  the  north. 

The  character  of  the  limestone  collected  from  various  localities 
in  Oktibbeha  County  is  shown  by  the  following  analyses: 


TABLE  19. 

ANALYSES  OF  SELMA  LIMESTONE  FROM  OKTIBBEHA  COUNTY. 


1 

2 

3 

4 

Average 

Silica  (SiOj) 

2.89 

2.33 

3.03 

2.55 

2.70 

Alumina  (A1208) 

Iron  oxide  (Fe2Os) 

| 1..53 

1.72 

1.92 

1.96 

1.78 

Lime  carbonate  (CaCOs) 

94.10 

94.35 

93.60 

94.07 

94.03 

Magnesium  carbonate  (MgCO») . . . 

1.84 

1.82 

1.64 

2.12 

1.85 

Water  (H20) 

.36 

.44 

.42 

.52 

.44 

By  a proper  admixture  of  clay  with  any  of  the  above  samples  of 
limestone  the  product  would  make  an  excellent  Portland  cement. 
The  per  cent  of  lime  carbonate  is  high  with  a corresponding  low  per 
cent  of  iron  oxide,  alumina  and  magnesium  carbonate. 

The  following  samples  of  Selma  limestone,  collected  by  W.  N. 
Logan  from  Oktibbeha  County,  were  analyzed  with  the  following 
results : 

TABLE  20. 


ANALYSES  OF  SELMA  LIMESTONE  FROM  OKTIBBEHA  COUNTY. 


1 2 3 4 5 6 

Silica  (Si02) 29.98  25.27  9.84  20.60  17.03  18.82 

Alumina  (A12Oj) 5.45  4.81  .19  7.63  21.00  .23 

Iron  oxide  (Fe208) 5.60  10.35  2.58  4.62  3.33  2.80 

Lime  (CaO) 31.62  32.85  38.65  21.81  29.29  40.02 

Volatile  matter  (C02) 24.50  25.60  42.05  23.15  28.20  34.02 

Magnesium  oxide  (MgO) .14  . 84  .18  . 81  0.00  . 96 

Sulphur  trioxide  (SOj) .21  .62  2.05  .25  .72  2.53 

Moisture 1.50  .40  .94  .85  .75  1.15 

1.  Agricultural  College. 

2.  Near  Osborn. 


3.  Reynolds  farm,  1 mile  west  of  Starkville. 

4.  Howard  Brick  Yard,  Starkville. 

5.  Howard  Brick  Yard,  Starkville. 

6.  Mayhew  road,  1 mile  east  of  Agricultural  College. 


The  occurrence  of  Selma  limestone  in  southern  Monroe,  Lowndes, 
Noxubee  and  Kemper  counties  has  been  described  in  detail  by  the 
writer  in  Bulletin  260,  U.  S.  Geological  Survey,  1904,  pp.  510-521. 
A large  number  of  samples  from  these  counties  were  collected  and 
analyzed  in  the  U.  S.  Geological  Survey  laboratory. 

Macon  and  Vicinity. — The  limestone  at  and  near  Macon  deserves 
special  mention  on  account  of  the  large  amount  of  material  in  sight, 


Plate  I 


SELMA  CHALK  BLUFF,  MACON, 


SELMA  CHALK. 


51 


the  ease  with  which  it  could  be  quarried,  the  nearness  to  deposits  of 
clay  and  the  facilities  offered  for  transportation. 

The  bluff  on  Noxubee  River  at  the  mouth  of  Macon  Creek,  near 
the  town  of  Macon,  is  about  40  feet  high,  and  extends  more  or  less 
unbroken  to  the  mouth  of  the  Noxubee  River.  The  entire  bluff, 
except  5 or  10  feet  of  surface  soil,  is  formed  of  the  Selma  limestone. 
Other  outcrops  occur  along  all  the  principal  streams  flowing  into  the 
Noxubee  River,  and  in  the  railway  cuts  as  far  south  as  Scooba. 

The  limestone,  viewed  from  a distance,  appears  to  be  a homo- 
geneous mass  of  white  chalk.  On  close  examination,  however,  it  is 
found  to  have  an  amygdaloidal  structure,  as  if  small  fragments  of 
limestone  had  been  cemented  into  a compact  mass.  There  are  few 
joints  or  stratification  lines  visible.  Occasional  concretions  of  iron 
pyrite  ranging  from  the  size  of  a buckshot  to  a hen’s  egg  occur 
imbedded  in  the  limestone.  After  long  exposure  to  the  weathering 
agents  the  sulfide  of  iron  changes  to  the  oxide,  leaving  rusty  iron 
stains  on  the  rocks. 

The  following  analyses  were  made  of  the  limestone  from  the  bluff 
at  Macon: 

TABLE  21. 

ANALYSES  OF  SELMA  LIMESTONE  FROM  MACON. 


1 2 

Silica  (Si02) 9.09  13.03 

Alumina  (AUOj)  1 , 4y  ^ 

Lime  carbonate  (CaCOs) 80.99  76.71 

Magnesium  carbonate  (MgCOs) .00  .36 

Water 1.08  .95 

Sulphur  trioxide  (SO3) 0.00  .64 


1.  W.  S.  McNeil,  U.  S.  Geol.  Survey,  Analyst. 

2.  W.  F.  Hand,  State  Chemist,  Agricultural  College,  Analyst. 


A sample  of  limestone  was  collected  from  the  ridgeland  3 miles 
north  of  Macon  and  analyzed  in  the  laboratory  of  the  U.  S.  Geological 
Survey  with  the  following  results: 


TABLE  22. 

ANALYSIS  OF  SELMA  LIMESTONE  FROM  3 MILES  NORTH  OF  MACON. 
(W.  S.  McNeil,  Analyst.) 


Silica  (Si02) 8.52 

Alumina  (A1203) 1 6 6q 

Iron  oxide  (Fe203) / 

Lime  carbonate  (CaCOs) 83.88 

Magnesium  carbonate  (MgCOs) -00 

Water l-°° 


52 


CEMENT  MATERIALS. 


Still  another  sample  of  the  Selma  was  collected  from  Prairie  Rock, 
12  miles  east  of  Macon.  This  rock  is  much  harder  than  the  ordinary 
Selma  and  breaks  with  a metallic  ring.  It  has  been  used  to  some 
extent  for  building  roads  near  Prairie  Rock,  but  it  soon  breaks  down 
into  soil  under  the  action  of  the  weathering  agents.  A sample  of 
this  limestone  was  analyzed  in  the  laboratory  of  the  U.  S.  Geological 
Survey  with  the  following  results: 

TABLE  23. 

ANALYSIS  OF  SELMA  LIMESTONE  FROM  PRAIRIE  ROCK. 

(W.  S.  McNeil,  Analyst.) 


Silica  (Si02) 1.13 

Alumina  (A1203) 1 

Iron  oxide  (Fe203) j 

Lime  carbonate  (CaCOj) 98.36 

Magnesium  carbonate  (MgC03) Tr. 

Water .40 


In  southwestern  Lowndes  County  excellent  Portland  cement 
materials  are  found  along  the  divide  between  Tombigbee  and  Noxubee 
rivers. 

On  Mr.  J.  B.  Brook’s  land  near  Crawford,  much  of  the  overburden 
has  been  removed,  leaving  the  white  Selma  chalk  at  the  surface. 
The  limestone  from  this  place  contains  about  the  proper  proportions 
of  lime  carbonate,  alumina  and  iron  oxide  for  Portland  cement. 
There  is  a small  amount  of  magnesia,  but  not  enough  to  injure  it. 
To  make  a suitable  cement  this  limestone  must  be  mixed  with  a clay 
containing  a low  per  cent  of  silica. 

TABLE  24. 

ANALYSIS  OF  SELMA  LIMESTONE  FROM  CRAWFORD. 


(Analysis  furnished  by  J.  B.  Brooks.) 

Silica  (Si02) 8.88 

Alumina  (A12Oj) 1 5 94 

Iron  oxide  (Fe203) J 

Calcium  carbonate  (CaC03) 79.73 

Magnesia  (MgC03 ) 1.22 

Loss 1.88 


A residual  clay  of  the  Selma  limestone  from  the  same  locality 
was  analyzed  with  the  following  results.  This  clay,  while  it  is  a 
fairly  good  one,  contains  a rather  high  per  cent  of  iron  oxide  and 
alumina  to  use  with  the  limestone. 


Plate  II. 


RESIDUAL  CLAY  AND  LAFAYETTE  OVERLYING  SELMA  CHALK,  MACON. 


SELMA  CHALK. 


53 


TABLE  25. 

ANALYSIS  OF  CLAY  FROM  CRAWFORD 

Silica  (SiOs) 

Alumina  (Al2Os) 

Iron  oxide  (Fe2Oa) 

Calcium  carbonate  (CaC03) 

Magnesium  carbonate  (MgC03) 

Loss 

The  Selma  limestone  may  be  seen  along  many  of  the  streams,  and 
in  the  railway  cuts  between  Macon  and  Scooba.  As  a general  thing 
there  is  only  a thin  covering  of  overburden  on  the  -ridges  and  slopes. 

Five  miles  east  of  Shuqualak,  Noxubee  River  has  cut  into  the 
Selma  limestone  and  formed  a bluff  on  the  east  bank  50  feet  high. 
A sample  of  this  limestone  collected  by  the  writer*  and  analyzed  in 
the  laboratory  of  the  U.  S.  Geological  Survey,  gave  the  following 
results: 

TABLE  26. 

ANALYSIS  OF  SELMA  LIMESTONE  5 MILES  EAST  OF  SHUQUALAK. 

(W.  S.  McNeil,  Analyst.) 


Silica  (Si02) 8.06 

Alumina  (A1203) 1 ,-04. 

Iron  oxide  (Fe203) / 

Lime  carbonate  (CaCOj) 84.61 

Magnesium  carbonate  (MgC03) .06 

Water 1.32 


The  high  percentage  of  silica  in  the  Selma  at  Wahalak,  Bodea 
Creek  and  Scooba,  indicates  a change  from  the  deep  sea  in  which  the 
Selma  was  deposited,  to  the  more  shallow  waters  which  received  the 
more  siliceous  deposits  of  the  Ripley  and  the  Porter’s  Creek  forma- 
tions. 

The  following  analyses!  of  Selma  limestone  were  made  in  the  labor- 
atory of  the  U.  S.  Geological  Survey: 

TABLE  27. 

ANALYSES  OF  SELMA  LIMESTONE  FROM  KEMPER  COUNTY. 


(W.  S.  McNeil,  Analyst.)  1 2 3 

Silica  (Si02) 16.48  10.60  20.00 

Alumina  (A1203)  \ 6.97  5.90  8.92 

Iron  oxide  (Fe203) J 

Lime  carbonate  (CaC08) 74.34  82.47  68.91 

Magnesium  carbonate  (MgCOs) .67  Tr.  Tr. 

Water .67  .82  1.06 

1.  Two  and  one-half  miles  east  of  Scooba. 

2.  Seven  miles  east  of  Sucarnochee. 

3.  One  and  one-half  miles  south  of  Wahalak. 


♦Bull.  283,  U.  S.  Geol.  Survey,  p.  216. 

fBull.  243,  U.  S.  Geological  Survey,  pp.  206  to  219. 


69.10 
| 17.10 

1.60 
.72 
9.18 


54 


CEMENT  MATERIALS. 


AVAILABLE  CLAYS  IN  AND  ADJACENT  TO  THE  SELMA  AREA. 

As  above  stated,  a mixture  of  clay  with  a pure  limestone  is  neces- 
sary in  the  manufacture  of  Portland  cement.  The  amount  of  clay 
varies  with  the  amount  of  lime  carbonate  in  the  limestone.  A pure 
limestone  like  that  from  Prairie  Rock  (see  page  52)  requires  about 
one  part  of  clay  to  two  parts  of  limestone,  while  the  limestone  from 
near  Wahalak  requires  the  addition  of  a purer  limestone. 

There  are  two  possible  sources  of  clay  for  Portland  cement  in  the 
Selma  area  and  adjacent  to  it.  These  are  (a)  residual  Selma  clays; 
{b)  Porter’s  Creek  clay. 


Residual  Selma  Clays. 

Highly  plastic  clays,  resulting  from  the  decomposition  of  the  Selma 
limestone,  occur  to  greater  or  less  extent  over  the  entire  Selma  area. 
Where  disintegration  is  complete  the  residual  Selma  clays  are  low  in 
lime  carbonate  and  comparatively  high  in  alumina  and  silica.  In  the 
absence  of  any  other  clays  they  may  be  used  with  the  limestones  in 
making  cement.  In  fact,  the  Alabama  Portland  cement  plant  at 
Demopolis,  Alabama,  uses  the  residual  clay  which  occurs  along 
Tombigbee  River.  The  limestone  used  at  this  plant  is  comparatively 
low  in  lime  carbonate  and,  therefore,  requires  only  a small  amount 
of  clay  to  reduce  the  lime  to  the  proper  percentage. 


TABLE  28. 

ANALYSES  OF  SELMA  LIMESTONE  USED  AT  THE  ALABAMA  PORT- 
LAND CEMENT  PLANT,  DEMOPOLIS,  ALABAMA. 


1 2 

Silica  (Si02) 12.50  9.88 

Alumina  (Al,Oa).. 1 

Iron  oxide  (Fe203) J 

Lime  carbonate  (CaCO*) 80.71  77.12 

Magnesium  carbonate  (MgO) 1.05  1.08 

Sulphur  trioxide  (SOj) 1.62  n.  d. 

Water 1.36  5.72 


1.  R.  S.  Hodges,  analyst. 

2.  Sen.  Doc.  No.  19,  58th  Congress,  1st  Session,  p.  22. 


No  analysis  of  the  clay  used  at  the  above  mentioned  plant  is 
available.  The  following  is  an  analysis  of  the  residual  Selma  clay 
from  Uniontown,  Alabama: 


porter’s  creek  clay. 


55 


TABLE  29. 

ANALYSIS  OF  RESIDUAL  CLAY  FROM  UNIONTOWN,  ALABAMA. 
(R.  S.  Hodges,  Analyst.) 


Silica  (Si02) 69.57 

Alumina  (A1203) \ 1Q 

Iron  oxide  (Fe203) / 

Lime  (CaO) 0.37 

Ignition 9.68 


TABLE  30. 

ANALYSES  OF  RESIDUAL  SELMA  CLAYS  FROM  MISSISSIPPI. 


1 2 3 4 5 6 7 

Silica  (Si02) 63.63  75.95  72.32  65.30  56.97  63.35  67.60 

Alumina  (A1203) 10.34  9.62  8.74  12.63  15.09  13.70  12.55 

Iron  oxide  (Fe203) 8.25  5.08  7.44  12.18  10.40  7.90  7.60 

Lime  (CaO) 3.75  1.25  1.55  1.50  1.00  0.80  .80 

Magnesia  (MgO) .50  .74  .47  .63  0.54  0.60  .78 

Volatile  matter  (C02) 7.77  2.52  5.58  2.27  10.90  6.50  5.00 

Sulphur  trioxide  (S03) 34  .34  .51  0.25  0.34  0.34  .17 

Moisture 4.25  3.50  3.45  4.75  2.95  6.02  5.50 


1.  West  Point. 

2.  West  Point. 

3.  West  Point. 

4.  Starkville. 

5.  Agricultural  College. 

6.  Agricultural  College. 

7.  Agricultural  College. 

Porter's  Creek  Clay. 

Immediately  above  the  Selma  limestone,  south  of  Houston,  the 
Porter’s  Creek  clay  outcrops  in  a belt  2 to  15  miles  wide.  North  of 
Houston  the  Ripley  and  Clayton  limestones  intervene  between  the 
Selma  and  the  Porter’s  Creek  formations.  It  is  known  as  the  “Flat- 
woods”  country,  and  in  places  is  characterized  by  low  flat  land 
resembling  the  broad  bottom  of  a large  river.  The  Porter’s  Creek 
clay  is  a dark  gray  clay  which  has  a tendency  to  break  into  rectangular 
blocks  when  exposed  to  the  sun.  It  contains  small  flakes  of  mica, 
which  in  places  have  been  segregated  into  small  dikes. 

Excellent  exposures  of  the  Porter’s  Creek  formation  occur  through- 
out the  State  where  the  Lafayette  has  been  removed.  The  Mobile, 
Jackson  and  Kansas  City  Railway  has  made  deep  cuts  into  the  clay  at 
Walnut,  Ripley,  and  along  the  divide  between  Houston  and  Maben. 
The  Southern  Railway,  from  West  Point  to  Winona,  cuts  into  the 
Porter’s  Creek  in  the  hills  between  Maben  and  Pheba. 

A sample  of  the  residual  Porter’s  Creek  from  1 mile  west  of  Stark- 
ville was  analyzed  with  the  following  results: 


56 


CEMENT  MATERIALS. 


TABLE  31. 

ANALYSIS  OF  RESIDUAL  PORTER’S  CREEK  CLAY,  FROM  1 MILE 
WEST  OF  STARKVILLE. 


Silica  (Si02) 75.60 

Alumina  (AI2O3) 7.00 

Iron  oxide  (FejOj) 8.24 

Lime  (CaO) 1.20 

Magnesia  (MgO) .67 

Volatile  matter  (CO2) 3.91 

Sulphur  trioxide  (SO3) .25 

Moisture... 2.97 


The  following  analyses  of  the  Porter’s  Creek  clays  were  made  from 
different  localities  in  the  State: 


TABLE  32. 


ANALYSES  OF  PORTER’S  CREEK  CLAY. 


Silica,  (Si02) 

Alumina  (Al203).».-  • • 
Iron  oxide  (Fe20j). . . . 

Lime  (CaO) 

Magnesia  (MgO) 

Volatile  matter  (C02). . 
Sulphur  trioxide  (SOs). 
Moisture 


1 

2 

3 

57.25 

71.47 

61.62 

6.17 

9.45" 

8.87 

18.95 

6.97 

16.29 

1.05 

.40 

.91 

.95 

.63 

.69 

7.75 

5.04 

7.77 

.21 

.13 

.28 

7.59 

5.65 

4.50 

1.  Residual  clay  from  near  Macon. 

2.  Residual  clay  from  Wahalak. 

3.  Porter’s  Creek  clay  from  Winston  County. 


The  Illinois  Central  Railway  from  Starkville  to  Ackerman  crosses 
the  Porter’s  Creek  formation,  showing  deep  cuts  of  laminated  grayish 
clay. 

Again,  on  the  Mobile  and  Ohio  Railway,  between  Scooba  and 
Lauderdale,  occurs  the  same  characteristic  clay  which  has  been  traced 
across  Alabama,  Mississippi,  western  Tennessee  and  Kentucky. 

A sample  of  the  Porter’s  Creek  clay  from  the  town  of  Scooba  was 
analyzed  in  the  laboratory  of  the  U.  S.  Geological  Survey*  with  the 
following  results: 

TABLE  33. 

ANALYSIS  OF  PORTER’S  CREEK  CLAY  FROM  SCOOBA. 

(W.  S.  McNeil,  Analyst.) 


Silica  (SiOz) 61.92 

Alumina  (AI2O3) 19.47 

Iron  oxide  (Fe20s) 2.81 

Magnesia  (MgO) 1.98 

Soda  (Na20) 50 

Loss  on  ignition .' 12.29 


♦Geology  and  Mineral  Resources  of  Miss.,  U.  S.  Geol.  Survey,  Bull.  No.  283,  p.  55. 


JACKSON  FORMATION. 


57 


It  will  be  seen  from  the  above  analyses  that  the  Porter’s  Creek 
clay  is  an  excellent  quality  of  clay  for  use  in  making  cement. 

JACKSON  FORMATION. 

Heretofore  no  attention  has  ever  been  paid  to  the  calcareous  marls 
of  the  Jackson  formation  for  Portland  cement.  During  the  course 
of  the  present  survey,  experiments  have  been  made  using  the  marl 
for  cement.  Samples  were  collected  from  two  of  the  most  important 
places  where  the  marl  comes  to  the  surface,  and  analyzed.  The 
formation  was  so  called  from  the  typical  exposures  in  the  bank  of 
Pearl  River  at  Jackson.  It  underlies  a large  area  of  central  Missis- 
sippi, just  north  of  the  Vicksburg  limestone  area.  It  comprises  what 
is  known  as  the  “central  prairie”  region.  The  marl  outcrops  in  com- 
paratively few  places  owing  to  the  overlying  surface  formations  and 
residual  soil.  The  surface  of  the  country  is  not  so  broken  as  the 
region  to  the  north  and  also  to  the  south. 

The  materials  composing  the  formation  are  principally  calcareous, 
clayey  marls,  and  unconsolidated  limestones,  clays  and  sands.  The 
sandy  portion  is  confined  to  about  the  uppermost  50  feet  of  the  for- 
mation. The  remaining  300  feet  are  marls  and  clays.  The  marls  are 
easily  recognized  by  the  great  amount  of  shells  which  they  contain. 

Throughout  the  entire  Jackson  area  where  the  marls  are  near  the 
surface  they  have  undergone  a chemical  change.  In  the  two  analyses 
of  Table  34a  the  nature  of  the  change  is  apparent.  No.  1 is  an  analysis 
of  a partly  weathered  Jackson  marl;  No.  2 is  the  analysis  of  the 
clay  derived  from  the  marl.  There  has  been  a loss  of  lime  carbonate 
in  the  marl  and  a porportionate  gain  of  silicon  dioxide  and  aluminum 
oxide  in  the  clay.  These  changes  have  been  brought  about  by 
weathering.  The  weathering  of  the  marl,  therefore,  accounts  for  the 
presence  of  the  green  plastic  clay  which  is  found  over  the  entire  Jack- 
son  area  from  which  the  overlying  Lafayette  and  yellow  loam  have 
been  removed. 

DISTRIBUTION. 

Yazoo  City. — Perhaps  the  best  exposure  of  the  Jackson  calcareous 
marls  in  the  State  is  found  in  the  bluff  at  Yazoo  City.  This  formation 
is  exposed  in  the  bluff  for  a distance  of  about  10  to  12  miles  north 
and  15  miles  south  of  the  city.  The  following  is  a section  of  the  bluff 

at  the  city  reservoir: 


58 


CEMENT  MATERIALS. 


Section  of  the  Bluff  at  Yazoo  City. 

Feet 

Yellow  loam  brick  clay 10-12 

Gray  calcareous  Loess,  which  stands  in  perpendicular  walls  100 

Lafayette  pebbles 12 

Jackson  marls,  containing  Zeuglodon  bones  and  other 

Jackson  fossils \ 180 


A sample  of  the  marl  taken  from  this  place  was  analyzed  with  the 
following  results: 

TABLE  34, 

ANALYSIS  OF  JACKSON  MARL-CLAY,  YAZOO  CITY 

Silica  (Si02) 

Alumina  (AI2O3) 

Iron  oxide  (FejOj) 

Lime  (CaO) 

Magnesia  (MgO) 

Volatile  matter  (C02) 

Moisture 


40.90 

13.50 

5.55 

14.62 

.88 

19.25 


The  above  analysis  wras  made  from  the  surface  and  represents  the 
transitional  stage  between  the  more  highly  calcareous  marl  and  the 
plastic  residual  clay. 

Jackson. — The  Jackson  marls  are  exposed  in  the  bank  of  Pearl 
River  between  the  wagon  bridge  and  the  Alabama  and  Vicksburg  Rail- 
road bridge.  A continuation  of  the  exposure  is  found  extending  up 
Town  Creek.  Other  exposures  are  found  in  the  bed  of  Moody’s 
Branch  near  the  city  waterworks’  stand-pipe,  and  in  the  railway  cut 
J mile  north  of  the  Asylum  station.  The  Jackson  clays,  underlain  by 
calcareous  marls,  are  found  in  the  deep  cut  on  the  Illinois  Central 
Railway  1 mile  south  of  Jackson.  At  the  latter  place  the  marl  weathers 
to  a slightly  pinkish  clay,  which  possesses  a jointed  structure.  The 
clay  contains  in  places  small  patches  of  very  fine  sand.  The  quality 
of  the  unweathered  marl  and  the  clay  from  this  place  is  shown  in  the 
following  analyses: 


TABLE  34a. 

ANALYSES  OF  JACKSON  MARL  AND  CLAY  1 MILE  SOUTH  OF  JACKSON. 

1 2 

Silica  (Si02) 35.72  59.82 

Alumina  (A1203) 13.79  12.24 

Iron  oxide  (Fe203) 5.38  6.10 

Lime  (CaO) 17.00  2.90 

Magnesium  oxide  (MgO) 1.99  1.68 

Sulphur  trioxide  (SO3) 0.12  2.11 

Volatile  matter  (C02) 17.91  7.55 

Moisture 5.85  6.08 


VICKSBURG  FORMATION. 


59 


VICKSBURG  FORMATION. 


The  Vicksburg  formation  outcrops  in  a narrow  belt  of  territory  in 
Mississippi  from  1 to  12  miles  wide,  extending  across  the  State  in  an 
approximately  northwest,  southeast  direction.  The  accompanying 
geological  map  of  the  State  shows  the  area  underlain  by  the  Vicksburg 
and  its  relation  to  the  Jackson  marls  on  the  north  and  the  Grand  Gulf 
group  on  the  south. 

The  Vicksburg  and  the  Jackson  in  Mississippi  are  mapped  as 
two  distinct  formations,  while  in  Alabama  they  are  described  together 
under  the  term  St.  Steven’s  limestone.  The  Vicksburg  is  the  equiva- 
lent of  the  upper,  and  the  Jackson  of  the  lower  part  of  the  St.  Steven’s 
limestone. 

The  character  and  composition  of  the  St.  Steven’s  limestone  has 
been  described  by  Dr.  E.  A.  Smith  in  Bulletin  No.  243,  pp.  77-81, 
U.  S.  Geological  Survey.  The  large  number  of  analyses  of  this  lime- 
stone made  in  the  laboratory  of  the  Alabama  Survey  shows  that  it 
is  well  adapted  to  the  manufacture  of  Portland  cement.  It  carries 
from  75  to  95  per  cent  of  calcium  carbonate,  with  very  little  magnesium 
carbonate. 

In  Mississippi  the  Vicksburg  formation  includes  thin  beds  of  fine 
grained  non-magnesium  limestone  from  1 to  4 feet  thick,  alternating 
with  highly  calcareous  marl  beds  more  or  less  indurated  in  places  and 
bearing  a rich  fauna  of  Oligocene  age.  Some  of  the  ledges  of  limestone 
make  excellent  building  stone  and  lime,  but  owing  to  the  great  amount 
of  interbedded  marl  and  surface  material,  quarrying  Jthe  limestone 
has  been  found  to  be  unprofitable. 

The  alternating  nature  of  the  limestone  and  marl  is  shown  in  the 
following  section  of  the  bluff  at  Vicksburg,*  between  the  city  and  the 
National  Cemetery: 


Section  of  the  Bluff  in  Vicksburg.  Inches 

22.  First  stratum  of  limestone  from  top,  overlain  by  Loess.  10 

21.  Gray  to  yellowish  marl 9 

20.  Heavy-bedded  limestone 46 

19.  Indurated  marl 34 

18.  Thin,  calcareous,  plastic  clay 2 

17.  Indurated  marl 6 

16.  Clay  similar  to  No.  10 2 

15.  Indurated  marl 5 


♦Bull.  283,  U.  S.  Geol.  Survey,  p.  38. 


60 


CEMENT  MATERIALS. 


Section  of  the  Bluff  in  Vicksburg — Continued.  Inches 


14.  Clay 4 

13.  Hard  limestone 18 

12.  Clay  and  marl  from  $ to  2 inches  thick 15 

11.  Indurated  marl 21 

10.  Limestone 18 

9.  Gray  marl 18 

8.  Limestone 18 

7.  Marl 3-6 

6.  Hard  limestones 52 

5.  Marl : 6 

4.  Limestone 27 

3.  Marl 17 

2.  Limestone 20 

1.  Marl 45 


In  the  above  section  there  are  17  feet  and  5 inches  of  hard  lime- 
stone, and  16  feet  and  8 inches  of  marl  and  clay.  The  impractica- 
bility of  using  the  hard  limestone  without  using  the  marl  and  the  clay 
is  at  once  apparent.  One  of  the  special  features  in  the  study  of  this 
formation  has  been  to  determine  the  possibility  of  utilizing  the  marls 
in  combination  with  the  limestone  in  the  manufacture  of  Portland 
cement. 

A large  number  of  analyses  of  the  marls  from  different  localities 
show  that  they  contain  no  large  amounts  of  injurious  properties, 
and  can  be  used  for  cement  as  they  come  from  the  quarry.  The 
marls  and  the  clays  supply  t,he  silica  and  alumina  for  Portland  cement 
and  are  therefore  of  equal  value  to  the  limestone.  In  fact,  by  taking 
a general  average  of  the  analyses  of  the  limestones  and  the  interbedded 
marls  we  obtain  the  desired  mixture  for  a Portland  cement,  without 
the  addition  of  other  materials. 

In  the  central  and  the  eastern  parts  of  the  State  the  Vicksburg 
formation  is  more  homogeneous  than  it  is  in  the  western  area.  In 
Smith  County  the  Vicksburg  is  a soft  porous  limestone  which  is  known 
as  the  “chimney  rock.”  It  is  quarried  for  chimneys  and  foundation 
pillars  by  sawing  it  into  any  desired  shape  with  a large  saw.  On 
exposure  to  the  air  it  hardens  and  lasts  for  30  to  40  years.  The  “chim- 
ney rock”  is  one  of  the  purest  forms  of  the  Vicksburg  limestone. 

DISTRIBUTION. 

Vicksburg. — The  typical  locality  of  the  Vicksburg  formation  is  in 
the  bluff  in  and  near  the  city  of  Vicksburg.  In  the  bluff  overlooking 


Plate  III, 


BLUFF  AT  VICKSBURG  SHOWING  VICKSBURG  LIMESTONE. 

(Photo  by  W.  N.  Logan.) 


VICKSBURG  FORMATION. 


61 


the  Mississippi  River  just  below  the  oil  mill,  J mile  south  of  the  con- 
fluence of  the  Yazoo  and  the  Mississippi  rivers,  the  following  exposure 
of  the  Vicksburg  formation  was  observed.  The  limestone  outcrops 
on  the  river  for  a distance  of  800  feet.  On  the  slope  facing  the  river 
between  the  oil  mill  and  the  city  the  limestone  underlies  a thin  veneer 
of  soil.  It  is  exposed  in  the  branches  and  in  a few  places  along  the 
track  of  the  Yazoo  and  Mississippi  Valley  Railway  from  the  oil  mill  to 
the  National  Cemetery.  The  top  of  the  Vicksburg  forms  a bench-like 
terrace  which  extends  back  to  the  foot  of  the  Loess  bluff. 


Section  of  Vicksburg  Limestone  at  the  Oil  Mill , 2\  Miles  South 
of  Vicksburg. 


Feet 

9.  Loess  in  the  bluff  back  from  the  river 100 

8.  Marl 2 

7.  Ledge  of  hard  limestone 3 

6.  Bed  of  soft  marl 3 

5.  Ledge  of  limestone 5 

4.  Marl  stratum 5 

3.  Ledge  of  hard  limestone 5 

2.  Hard  limestone 3 

1.  Bed  of  compact  marl 5 

Water’s  edge. 


The  thickness  of  the  exposure  in  the  above  section  is  about  one- 
third  of  the  entire  thickness  of  the  Vicksburg  formation. 

Analysis  of  each  stratum  from  Nos.  1 to  7 inclusive  was  made  with 
the  following  results.  The  numbers  of  the  analyses  correspond  to  the 
numbers  in  the  above  section. 


TABLE  35. 

ANALYSES  OF  VICKSBURG  LIMESTONE  AND  MARLS  FROM  VICKSBURG. 


1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Average  8 

Silica  (Si02) 32.45  6.43  7.39  25.27  5.58  13.62  3.10  13.41  7.08 

Alumina  (A1203) 2.12  .31  1.02  4.50  1.00  3.00  .25  1.74  .61 

Iron  oxide  (Fe203) 2.05  2.00  2.48  5.37  2.18  2.75  1.62  2.63  2.50 

Lime  (CaO) 34.20  50.25  47.50  29.50  49.97  40.37  50.63  43.20  50.44 

Volatile  matter  (C02) 26.65  39.00  38.65  24.10  39.26  33.66  41.00  34.62  37.22 

Magnesium  oxide  (MgO).  . .38  1.36  1.45  1.99  1.01  1.72  .99  1.29  1.07 

Sulphur  trioxide  (SO3) 08  .36  .51  2.76  .30  .98  .60  .79  0.38 

Moisture 1.60  .61  1.10  3.95  .82  2.75  .60  1.63  0.40 


No.  8 is  a limestone  from  Steel’s  Bayou,  Vicksburg. 

A small  fragment  of  limestone  from  each  ledge  including  Nos.  2, 
3,  5 and  7 was  pulverized  and  the  mixture  analyzed  with  the  results 
given  in  No.  1 below.  A similar  analysis  was  made  from  a mixture 
of  the  marls  with  the  results  given  in  No.  2. 


62 


CEMENT  MATERIALS. 


TABLE  36. 

ANALYSES  OF  VICKSBURG  LIMESTONE  AND  MARLS  FROM  VICKSBURG. 
(Dr.  A.  M.  Muckenfuss,  Analyst.) 


1 

2 

Average 

Silica  (Si02) 

. 4.95 

24.97 

14.96 

Alumina  (Al2Os) 

56 

6.49) 

5.46 

Iron  oxide  (Fe20j) 

2.47 

1.36/ 

Lime  (CaO) 

50.11  . 

33.97 

42.04 

Carbon  dioxide  (CO2) 

39.30 

26.38 

32.84 

Magnesia  (MgO) 

1.13 

1.60 

1.37 

Alkali  (K20) 

0.15 

0.70 

.43 

Sulphuric  acid  (SOs) 

0.25 

1.00 

.63 

Phosphoric  acid  (P2O5) 

0.03 

0.07 

.06 

Insoluble  matter,  volatile  (organic) 

0.84 

2.24 

1.54 

Moisture 

0.20 

0.82 

.51 

The  value  of  the  Vicksburg  limestone  as  a Portland  cement  rock 
is  shown  by  comparing  the  general  average  of  the  above  analyses  to 
the  analyses  of  actual  cement  mixtures  given  in  the  following  table. 
The  amount  of  combined  impurities  in  the  Vicksburg  limestone  is 
smaller  than  that  in  the  actual  mixtures  given  below : 


TABLE  37. 


COMPOSITION  OF  ACTUAL  MIXES  USED  IN  AMERICAN  CEMENT  PLANTS 


Silica  (Si02) 

Alumina  (AI2O3) 

Iron  oxide  (Fe203). . . 

Lime  (CaO) 

Magnesia  (MgO) 

Carbon  dioxide  (CO2) 
Water 


4.35 


14.77  12.85  15.18 
(4.92 
L1 .21 
43.03  42.76  42.97 
1.74  1.02  n.d. 

35.61  34.71  n.d. 
n.d.  n.d.  n.d. 


6.42  8.2  6.56  n.d.  7.20  6.00' 


11.8  13.52  13.46  13.85  12.62  14.94  12.92 

2.66  4.83 
1.10  1.77 

41.8  42.07  41.25  41.40  42.26  42.34  42.30 
0.8  2.07  n.d.  n.d.  2.67  2.21  2.08 


n.d.  35.31 
n.d.  n.d. 


34.86  36.42 


fn 


10  35.68  35.49 
d.  n.d.  n.d. 


The  Vicksburg  outcrops  at  intervals  in  the  bluff  from  the  city  of 
Vicksburg  to  the  town  of  Redwood  or  beyond;  the  limestone  occurs 
beneath  a thick  Lafayette  and  Loess  overburden  which  attains  a 
maximum  thickness  of  about  175  feet. 

In  the  hills  south  of  Vicksburg  the  Grand  Gulf  clays  are  found  on 
the  hillsides  and  in  the  bluffs  beneath  the  Loess  and  Lafayette.  In 
places  it  is  a highly  plastic  gray  clay  interbedded  with  aluminous 
sandstone.  From  five  miles  south  of  Vicksburg,  on  the  old  Roche 
land,  a sample  of  Grand  Gulf  clay  was  analyzed  with  the  following 
results* : 


ANALYSIS  OF  CLAY  5 MILES  SOUTH  OF  VICKSBURG. 


Silica  (SiOa) 58.50 

Altunina  (AI2O3) 19.04 

Ferric  oxide  (Fe2Os) 1.93 

Lime  (CaO) 1.48 

Magnesia  (MgO) 1.66 

Sulphur  trioxide  (SO3) Trace 

Moisture 3.19 

Loss  on  ignition 8.26 


♦Bull.  283,  U.  S.  Geol.  Survey,  p.  68 


Plate  IV. 


LEDGE  OF  VICKSBURG  LIMESTONE,  CLINTON. 


VICKSBURG  FORMATION. 


63 


Byram. — The  Vicksburg  formation  outcrops  in  the  hills  northwest 
of  Byram.  One  mile  north  of  the  station  the  rock  is  exposed  in  the 
railway  cut.  From  the  little  hill  to  the  west  of  this  exposure  the  hard 
limestone  was  used  formerly  for  making  lime. 

Hard  ledges  of  limestone  interbedded  with  beds  of  indurated  marl 
are  exposed  in  the  banks  of  Pearl  River  from  about  J of  a mile  below 
to  miles  above  Byram.  In  places  the  same  ledge  may  be  seen  in 
the  bank  of  the  river  only  a few  feet  above  the  water  for  a distance 
of  J mile.  There  is  a gentle  fold  in  the  rocks  with  the  axis  extending 
in  an  approximately  east  and  west  direction  (see  Plate  V). 

Samples  of  the  limestone  and  marl  from  the  bank  of  the  river  at 
Byram  were  analyzed  with  the  following  results: 


TABLE  38. 


ANALYSES  OF  VICKSBURG  LIMESTONE  AND  MARL  FROM  BYRAM. 


Silica  (Si02) 

Alumina  (AI2O3) 

Ferric  oxide  (Fe203). .. 

Lime  (CaO) 

Magnesia  (MgO) 

Volatile  matter  (C02). 
Sulphur  trioxide  (SO3) 
Moisture 


Limestone 

Mafl 

2.28 

26.42 

2.42 

8.25 

2.19 

5.20 

50.55 

27.77 

1.40 

1.44 

40.87 

26.00 

.30 

2.00 

.31 

3.00 

About  2\  miles  north  of  Byram  on  the  east  bank  of  Pearl  River 
the  following  section  is  exposed: 


Section  of  Vicksburg  Formation  2\  Miles  North  of  Byram* 


Inches 

Gray  rotten  limestone  containing  grains  of  glauconitic  sand  24 

Harder  gray  limestone 24 

Indurated  brown  marl 24 

Hard,  compact,  gray  limestone 16 

Soft  yellow  marl 14 

Very  hard  gray  limestone 10 

Gray  marly  clay 8 

Compact  limestone 20 

Indurated  white  to  gray  marl 20 

Ferruginated  sandy  limestone 72 

Green-sand  marl  base  of  exposure 60 


Plain. — The  Vicksburg  limestone  outcrops  in  the  first  cut  south  o^ 
Plain,  on  the  Gulf  and  Ship  Island  Railway.  The  exposure  here  as  at 


♦Unpublished  notes  obtained  by  the  writer  while  employed  on  the  U.  S.  Geol.  Survey. 


64 


CEMENT  MATERIALS. 


Vicksburg  is  composed  of  alternating  beds  of  limestone  and  marl. 
At  the  top  of  the  formation  is  a plastic,  calcareous  red  clay,  which 
is  formed  from  the  decomposition  of  the  limestone  and  the  marl. 
Samples  of  each  stratum  in  the  cut  were  analyzed  with  the  following 
results : 


TABLE  39. 

ANALYSES  OF  VICKSBURG  LIMESTONE  AND  MARLS  FROM  NEAR  PLAIN. 


Average 


Silica  (Si02) 7.57 

Alumina  (A1203) 1.23 

Iron  oxide  (Fe20*) 5.50 

Lime  oxide  (CaO) 46.33 

Magnesium  oxide  (MgO) 0.02 

Volatile  matter  (C02) 38.54 

Sulphur  trioxide  (SO*) 09 

Moisture 27 


1.85  4.95  12.52  14.11  17.53  9.76 

1.37  0.00  4.75  2.87  1.42  1.94 

1.75  4.25  5.50  6.60  15.15  6.46 

52.12  47.50  39.75  39.78  29.87  42.56 

0.49  1.16  0.81  0.40  0.02  .48 

41.87  39.25  34.50  34.33  27.45  35.99 

25 17 17 

.25  1.25  1.56  1.62  5.25  1.70 


The  Vicksburg  limestone  can  be  easily  traced  by  the  outcrops  in 
the  hills  from  the  exposure  in  the  railway  cut  south  of  Plain  westward 
to  Pearl  River,  and  eastward  to  Brandon.  At  no  place  is  there  a 
great  thickness  exposed,  rarely  more  than  20  feet,  -and  frequently 
much  less. 

Brandon. — The  Vicksburg  limestone  is  exposed  at  the  railway 
station  at  Brandon  and  for  J mile  to  the  west.  Another  exposure  is 
found  at  the  old  Yost  lime  kiln  site,  1 mile  east  of  the  station. 

The  most  complete  exposure  of  the  Vicksburg,  east  of  Pearl  River, 
is  found  at  the  old  Robinson  quarry,  about  4 miles  southeast  of 
Brandon.  The  formation  is  made  up  of  hard  ledges  of  crystalline 
limestone  alternating  with  beds  of  calcareous  marl  of  about  equal 
thickness.  This  rock  was  quarried  for  some  time  by  a firm  in  Jackson. 
It  was  crushed  and  used  in  the  foundation  of  the  new  State  Capitol. 
Work  was  discontinued  because  of  the  great  amount  of  useless  marl 
which  had  to  be  removed  to  get  the  rock.  The  analyses  as  given 
below  show  that  the  marl  and  limestone  could  all  be  used  in  making 
Portland  cement. 

This  material  is  easily  quarried  as  there  is  little  or  no  superincum- 
bent matter.  A spur  from  the  main  line  of  the  Alabama  and  Vicksburg 
Railway  has  been  built  from  Rankin  to  the  quarry,  thus  giving  an 
easy  outlet  for  the  material. 


Plate 


VICKSBURG  LIMESTONE  ON  PEARL  RIVER,  BYRAM. 


VICKSBURG  FORMATION. 


65 


TABLE  .40. 

ANALYSES  OF  VICKSBURG  LIMESTONE  FROM  ROBINSON  QUARRY, 
4 MILES  SOUTHEAST  OF  BRANDON. 


Silica  (Si02) 4.22  4.55  5.56  1.58  16.88 

Alumina  (A1203) 75  .00  1.09  4.40  5.70 

Iron  oxide  (Fe203) 4.37  4.25  4.01  3.31  3.59 

Lime  oxide  (CaO) 49.62  49.92  48.44  48.40  36.86 

Magnesium  oxide  (MgO) 09  .09  .78  1.27  .99 

Volatile  matter  (C02) 40.05  39.61  38.12  39.70  33.16 

Sulphur  trioxide  (S03) .36  .72  .24  .45  v .24 

Moisture 88  .95  1.61  .60  2.10 


Bay  Spring. — There  are  numerous  outcrops  of  the  Vicksburg  for- 
mation between  Brandon  and  Bay  Spring,  but  as  they  are  so  far 
removed  from  lines  of  transportation  it  is  hardly  possible  that  the 
limestone  will  soon  become  of  value  for  cement,  and  consequently 
only  one  of  the  most  important  outcrops  will  be  described  in  this 
report. 

On.  the  east  side  of  Tallahala  Creek,  about  4 miles  west  of  Bay 
Spring,  the  Vicksburg  limestone  outcrops  in  the  road  and  on  the  side 
of  the  hill.  Above  the  limestone  is  a pink,  plastic  clay  very  similar 
to  the  clay  overlying  the  limestone  1J  miles  south  of  Plain  (see  pre- 
ceding page).  The  thickness  of  the  Vicksburg  here  is  65  feet. 

The  uppermost  member  of  the  Vicksburg  is  a ledge  of  hard  bluish 
gray  limestone,  which  is  so  much  more  resistant  than  the  overlying 
Grand  Gulf  clay  that  it  forms  a marked  bench  along  the  hillside  at 
this  place.  One  thing  noticeable  about  the  Vicksburg  limestone  at 
this  locality  is  the  absence  of  marl  beds  alternating  with  harder  ledges 
of  limestone.  The  top  of  the  formation  is  capped  with  a hard  ledge 
of  limestone,  but  all  the  material  underneath  this  to  the  bottom  of  the 
hill  is  a soft,  porous,  white  to  yellowish  limestone.  The  harder  ledges 
of  limestone  were  formerly  used  for  burning  lime. 

On  Mr.  Houston’s  land,  2 miles  west  of  Sylvarina,  is  a quarry  where 
the  soft,  porous  limestone  is  sawed  out  for  building  chimneys.  The 
rock  for  3 to  4 feet  below  the  surface  has  disintegrated  into  a rotten 
mass,  easily  picked  to  pieces  with  a spade.  Below  this  it  is  sufficiently 
compact  to  be  used  for  building  chimneys.  The  quarry  has  been 
worked  for  17  years. 

Chimneys  built  of  this  rock  first  disintegrate  at  the  top.  The 
rock  is  very  porous;  it  fills  with  water  which  freezes  in  the  winter  and 
causes  it  to  break.  The  rock  has  also  been  used  for  making  lime  and 

5 


66 


CEMENT  MATERIALS. 


doubtless  is  very  desirable  for  this  purpose,  since  it  is  almost  pure  lime 
carbonate. 

No  detailed  work  has  been  done  on  the  Vicksburg  limestone 
by  the  present  survey  along  the  New  Orleans  and  Northeastern,  and 
the  Mobile  and  Ohio  railways.  The  hard  upper  ledges  outcrop  in  the 
hills  north  and  east  of  the  town  of  Vossburg. 

Two  samples  of  limestone  from  near  Nancy,  Clarke  County,  were 
collected  by  W.  N.  Logan,  and  analyzed  with  the  following  result: 


TABLE  41. 


ANALYSES  OF  VICKSBURG  LIMESTONE  FROM  NEAR  NANCY,  CLARKE 

COUNTY. 


Silica  (Si02) 

Alumina  (A12Oj) 

Iron  oxide  (Fe203) 

Lime  oxide  (CaO) 

Magnesia  (MgO) 

Volatile  matter  (C02) . 
Sulphur  trioxide  (SO3) 
Moisture 


7.31  6.77 

13.61  4.68 

4.00  2.00 

36.62  45.51 

.29  .64 

35.20  35.40 

2.78  3.00 

1.00  1.79 


“Near  Red  Hill,*  in  Wayne  County,  on  Limestone  Creek,  the 
Mobile  and  Ohio  Railway  is  cut  through  a considerable  hill,  where 
the  limestone  group  of  the  Eocene  formation  is  well  exhibited.  Lime- 
stone Creek,  which  runs  south  of  the  cut  on  the  railroad  and  empties 
about  400  yards  from  it,  into  the  Chickasawhay  River,  contains  large 
ledges  of  hard,  compact  limestone;  and  southeast  of  the  cut  about  l£ 
miles  the  sandstone  which  appears  south  of  the  cut  and  not  well 
cemented,  crops  out  as  a hard  limestone,  an  excellent  material  for 
building  purposes.” 

At  the  confluence  of  Limestone  Creek  and  Chickasawhay  River 
Dr.  Harper  gives  the  following  section  of  the  limestone: 


Section  of  Vicksburg  Limestone  at  the  Mouth  of  Limestone  Creek, 

Wayne  County. 

Surface  soil,  chiefly  sand — 

Yellowish  limestone — 

Calcareous  sand  containing  Pecten — 

Calcareous  marl  containing  Orbitoides,  Ostrea,  Pecten, 

Area,  Flabellum,  Cardita,  etc — 

Shell  marl — 

No  thicknesses  are  given. 

Three  analyses  of  the  limestone  from  Red  Hill,  Wayne  County,  are 
given  by  Dr.  L.  Harper  (f)  as  follows: 


♦Geology  and  Agriculture  of  Mississippi,  1857,  L.  Harper,  p.  140. 
tlbid,  p.  166. 


Plate  VI. 


VICKSBURG  LIMESTONE,  ROBINSON  QUARRY,  NEAR  RANKIN. 

(Photo  by  W.  N.  Logan.) 


VICKSBURG  FORMATION. 


67 


TABLE  42. 

ANALYSES  OF  VICKSBURG  LIMESTONE  FROM  RED 

HILL, 

WAYNE 

Silica  (Si02) 

COUNTY. 

(Dr.  L.  Harper,  Analyst.) 
6.30 

15.05 

9.20 

Alumina  (AI2O3) 

| 7.20 

5.35 

6.65 

Iron  oxide  (Fe203) 

Lime  (CaO) 

48.44 

44.58 

47.12 

Carbon  dioxide  (CO2) . . 

>38.06 

35.02 

37.03 

Water 

n.  d. 

n.  d. 

Dr.  E.  W.  Hilgard  (*),  in  speaking  of  the  occurrence  of  the  Vicks- 
burg limestone  in  Wayne  County,  says:  “On  the  Chickasawhay , 
between  Red  Bluff  and  the  latitude  of  Waynesboro,  both  marls  and 
limestones  crop  out  with  frequency;  the  same  is  the  case  on  the 
creeks  on  the  east  side  as  on  Cakchey’s  Mill  Creek  and  Limestone 
Creek,  especially  near  the  mouth  of  the  latter,  at  the  foot  of  the  hill 
on  which  Dr.  E.  A.  Miller  lives — the  most  southerly  outcrop  of  the 
calcareous  Vicksburg  on  the  Chickasawhay.  The  sections  exhibited 
here  in  the  river  banks  and  cuts  of  the  railroad  correspond  so  closely 
to  those  between  Yost’s  lime  kiln  and  Brandon  depot  that  the  spec- 
imens can  hardly  be  distinguished  from  each  other  when  placed  side 
by  side,  the  only  difference  being  the  great  abundance  of  Orbitoides 
in  the  soft  white  marl  intervening  between  the  strata  of  rock.  The 
ledges  of  hard  limestone  (in  Wayne  County)  are  not  so  well  defined — 
the  rock  being  softer  and  whitish.” 


(*)Geology  of  Mississippi,  Hilgard  1860,  p.  146 


68 


CEMENT  MATERIALS. 


ADVANTAGEOUS  LOCATIONS  FOR  CEMENT  PLANTS. 


To  build  a Portland  cement  plant  at  a point  remote  from  trans- 
portation lines  is  to  invite  financial  loss.  And  under  the  present 
system  of  levying  freight  rates  it  is  almost  equally  perilous  to  build 
a plant  where  there  is  but  one  transportation  outlet,  unless  satis- 
factory arrangements  have  been  made  previous  to  the  erection  of 
the  plant. 

In  Mississippi  there  are  four  general  localities  where  raw  materials, 
and  good  transportation  facilities  can  be  obtained. 

TISHOMINGO  COUNTY. 

The  Southern  Railway  from  Memphis  to  Chattanooga  passes 
near  the  northern  outcrop  of  the  oolitic  limestone  in  Tishomingo 
County  near  where  the  road  crosses  Bear  Creek.  At  this  point  it  is 
only  8 miles  to  the  Tennessee  River.  The  largest  boats  of  that  river 
run  as  far  as  the  mouth  of  Bear  Creek.  A cement  plant  built  at  this 
point  would  have  an  outlet  to  the  north  by  boat  and  a railway  con- 
nection to  the  east,  west  and  south.  Coal  could  be  obtained  by  river 
or  from  the  nearby  Alabama  fields  at  a minimum  cost.  A Portland 
cement  plant  at  Mingo  bridge  could  use  the  oolitic  limestone  and  the 
overlying  shale.  Bear  Creek  furnishes  sufficient  water  to  run  a mill 
by  water  power.  The  newly  constructed  line  of  the  Illinois  Central 
Railway  connecting  Birmingham,  Alabama,  and  Jackson,  Tennessee, 
with  an  outlet  to  the  north  and  south,  runs  within  3 miles  of  this 
place. 

STARKVILLE  AND  WEST  POINT. 

The  Selma  limestone  and  Porter’s  Creek  clay  are  in  proximity 
along  the  Mobile  and  Ohio  Railway  in  Kemper  County,  along  the 
Illinois  Central  in  Oktibbeha  County,  and  along  the  Southern  in 
southern  Clay  County.  The  relations  of  these  locations  to  transpor- 
tation lines  are  clearly  indicated  on  the  map.  The  Mobile  and  Ohio 
furnishes  an  outlet  to  the  north  and  south.  The  Southern  line  from 


LOCATIONS  FOR  PLANTS. 


69 


Greenville,  Mississippi,  to  Birmingham,  Alabama,  offers  an  outlet 
to  the  east  and  west.  The  Aberdeen  branch  of  the  Illinois  Central 
connects  with  the  main  line  from  Louisville  to  New  Orleans  at  Durant, 
thus  giving  an  outlet  into  a new  territory. 

Starkville  and  West  Point  offer  exceptional  advantages  for  Port- 
land cement  plants,  inasmuch  as  limestone  and  clay  are  found  near 
in  great  abundance,  and  the  coal  field  of  Alabama  is  less  than  100 
miles  away.  In  fact  either  of  these  places  is  closer  to  the  coal  field 
by  rail  than  the  Alabama  Portland  Cement  plant  at  Demopolis. 

With  a bed  of  limestone  800  to  1,000  feet  thick  underlying  Nox- 
ubee. Clay,  Lee,  eastern  Oktibbeha  and  Chickasaw  counties,  and  an 
inexhaustible  supply  of  clay  just  west  of  the  Selma  area,  there  is  a 
sufficient  amount  of  raw  material  to  supply  the  Portland  cement 
trade  of  the  entire  United  States  for  an  indefinite  length  of  time. 

Starkville  and  West  Point  afford  good  advantages  in  regard  to 
proximity  of  raw  material  and  fuel  for  a cement  plant;  and  they 
have  a fair  outlet  for  the  finished  product. 


COLUMBUS. 

The  town  of  Columbus  has  plenty  of  limestone  near  and  has  some 
advantages  over  West  Point  and  Starkville  in  being  closer  to  the  coal 
field  of  Alabama.  With  the  opening  of  the  Tombigbee  River  to 
navigation  cheaper  rates  could  be  had  than  at  any  other  city  in  east- 
ern Mississippi.  Good  clays  can  be  obtained  in  the  Tuscaloosa  and 
the  Eutaw  formations  in  the  hills  east  of  Tombigbee  River. 

JACKSON  AND  VICINITY. 

The  Vicksburg  limestone  outcrops  in  the  banks  of  Pearl  River 
at  Bryam,  in  the  railway  cut  1J  miles  south  of  Plain,  and  again  at  the 
Robinson  quarry  near  Rankin.  All  of  these  outcrops  are  on  railway 
lines  and  within  a radius  of  14  miles  from  Jackson.  The  limestones 
at  all  of  these  places  have  been  analyzed  and  found  to  be  desirable 
materials  for  Portland  cement.  Jackson  is  a good  distributing  point 
with  seven  railway  lines  radiating  to  the  north,  east,  south  and  west. 
Two  railway  lines,  the  Illinois  Central  and  the  Gulf  and  Ship  Island, 
connect  Jackson  with  deep  water  routes  to  the  Gulf. 


70 


CEMENT  MATERIALS. 


VICKSBURG. 

Vicksburg  offers  more  natural  advantages  for  the  location  of  a 
cement  plant  than  any  other  city  in  the  State.  Raw  material  of 
limestone  and  marl  are  found  in  the  bluffs  facing  the  river.  The 
Mississippi  River  and  the  Yazoo  and  Mississippi  Valley  Railway 
afford  transportation  to  the  north  and  south;  the  Alabama  and 
Vicksburg  Railway  affords  transportation  to  the  east  and  west. 
Coal  could  be  obtained  by  river  from  Pittsburg,  by  the  Yazoo  and 
Mississippi  Valley  Railway  from  Illinois  and  western  Kentucky,  and 
by  the  Alabama  and  Vicksburg  Railway  from  the  Alabama  coal 
field. 


INDEX, 


PAGE 

PAGE 

Ackerman 

56 

Cement,  Parian 

16 

Acknowledgments 

10  1 

Portland 

19 

Advantageous  locations  for 

Puzzolam 

18,19 

plants 

68 

Cement  industry  in  the  south . 11, 

Alabama 35,  41,  42,  46,  54,  55, 

12,  15 

56,  59,  68-70 

, in  the  U.  S 

12 

Alcorn  Co 

24 

Chalk 

23 

Alkali  waste 

25,26 

Chickasaw 

24,  48,  69 

Analysis  of  alkali  waste 

26 

Chickasawhay  River. . . . 

66,67 

, cement 

20 

Clarke  Co 

66 

, cement  materials,  18,  22,  24, 25,  54 

Classification  of  cements 

16 

, clays 40,  53,  55,  56,  58 

Clay  Co 

.24,  48,  68,  69 

, kiln  coals 

33 

Clays 27,40,  53,  55,  56,  58 

, lignites 

35 

Coal 

32,33 

, limestones 

38,  39,  47,  49, 

Columbus 

49,  69 

50-54,  61-67 

Complex  cement 

17 

, marls 

61-64 

Composition  of  P.  cement 20 

oyster  shells 

25 

Condition  of  C.  industry  j 

in  U.S.  12 

> slag 

26 

Contents 

4 

Argillaceous  limestone . . 

21 

Coonewah  Creek 

47 

Artesia 

......  49 

Corinth 

43,44 

Aspdin,  Joseph 

12 

Cost  of  crushing,  drying,  etc.  . 33 

Available  clays 

54 

Cost  of  drying 

30 

Cretaceous  formation . . . 

. . . .27,  38,  40 

Baldwin 

46 

Crawford 

52,53 

Bay  Spring 

65 

Cypress  Pond 

38,39 

Bear  Creek 

. . . .38,  39,  68 

Biloxi 

10,25 

Danville 

45 

Bodea  Creek 

53 

Demopolis,  Ala 

54 

Booneville 

45 

Devonian 

. . . .37,  38,  40 

Brandon 

64,  65,  67 

Dry  process 

29 

Britton,  J.  B 

40 

Brooks,  J.  B 

52 

Early  history  of  P.  cement.  ...  12 

Brown,  Calvin 

10,34 

Eckel,  E.  C 

10,  16,  18,  19, 

Burning 

32 

22,  23, 

, 26,  27,  33,  36 

By  ram 

63,69 

Edison  plant _ 

30 

Eutaw 

41,46,69 

Cakchey’s  Mill  Creek  _ . . 

67 

Carbonate  Cement 

16 

Flatwoods 

55 

Carboniferous 

38-40 

Fresh-water  marl 

24 

Cements,  carbonate  . . . . 

16 

Fuels 

32-35 

classification  of . . . . 

16 

Fulton 

40 

complex 

17 

hydrate 

16 

General  geology 

36 

Keene’s 

16 

Geological  commission . . 

2 

Natural 

17 

Geological  corps 

2 

72 


INDEX. 


PAGE 

Geology 36-67 

Grand  Gulf 62,  65 

Greenville 69 

Grinding  raw  material 28 

Grinding  the  clinker 35 

Guntown 46 

Hand,  W.  F 10,38,40,51 

Harper,  L 66 

Hilgard,  E.  W 38,  40,  48,  67 

. History  of  P.  cement 12 

Hodges,  R.  S 54,  55 

Houston 55 

Hydrate  cements 16 

Hydraulic  properties 18 

Illinois 35 

Illustrations,  list  of 9 

Index 71 

Indiana 38 

Introduction 11 

Itawamba  Co 49 

Iuka 39,40 

Jackson 57;  58,  69 

Jackson  formation 57,  59 

J umperto  wn 45 


PAGE 

Maben 55 

Macon 50-53,  56 

Macon  Creek 51 

McNeil,  W.  S 51,53,56 

Magnesia 18,23 

Map after  page  74 

Marls 24,61-64 

Methods  of  manufacture 28 

Mingo 38,  39,  68 

Mississippi  River 61,  70 

Mitchell,  D.L 10 

Monroe  Co 24,  49,  50 


Nancy....  „ 66 

Natural  gas 34 

New  Jersey 21 

Noxubee  Co 24,  50,  69 

Noxubee  River 48,  51-53 


Object  of  this  report 12 

Oil  as  fuel 34 

Okolona 48,  49 

Oktibbeha  Co 24,  42,  49,  50,  68,  69 

Old  Town  Creek., 46 

Osborn 50 

Output  of  P.  cement  in  U.  S. .. . 13,14 
Oyster  shells 25 


Keene’s  cement 16 

Kemper  Co 50,  68 

Kentucky 35,  38,  56,  70 

Lafayette  formation 38,  39,  42,  43, 

45-49,  55,  57,  58,  62 


Lauderdale 56 

Lee  Co 45,47,49,69 

Lehigh  district 21,  22 

Letter  of  transmittal 3 

Limestone 21,  22,  24,  29, 

38,  47,  49-54,  59-66 

Limestone  Creek 66 

List  of  illustrations 9 

List  of  tables 7 

Loess. 59,  61,  62 

Logan,  William  N 10,  47,  50,  66 

Lowndes  Co 24,  50,  52 


Panama  canal 

15 

Parian  cement 

16 

Pearl  River 

57,  58,  63,69 

Pennsylvania 

21,34 

Pheba 

55 

Plain 

63-65,  69 

Plaster  of  Paris. . . . 

16 

Pontotoc 

4r 

Pontotoc  Co 

47 

Pontotoc  Ridge 

48 

Porter’s  Creek  clay 

43,  53-57,  68 

Portland  cement,  imported ....  11 

Portland  cement 

material  of 

Miss 

36 

Post  oak  land 

42 

Potter’s  clay 

40 

Prairie  rock 

52,54 

INDEX. 


73 


PAGE 

Prairie  soil 42,49 

Preparing  raw  material 28,  29 

Preparing  slag  for  cement 31 

Producer  gas 34 

Production  of  cement  in  U.  S.  . 14 

Puzzolan  cement 18,  19 

Rankin 64,  69 

Raw  materials 21 

Red  Bluff 67- 

Redwood 62 

Red  Hill 66,67 

Residual  Selma  clays 54 

Retarder 36 

Rienzi . . . 45 

Ripley 55 

Ripley  formation 53,55 

Rotary  dryer 29,  30 


Rotten  limestone.  See  Selma  Chalk. 


Scooba 51,  53,  56 

Selma  chalk 24,  40-53,  68,  69 

Shale 27 

Short  P.  O 37 

Shuqualak  53 

Slag 26 

Slate 28 

Smith  Co 60 

Smith,  Eugene  A 59 

South,  cement  industry  in 11,  15 

Specific  gravity  of  P.  cement. . . 18,  20 

Stanger  and  Blount 35 

Starkville 49,  50,  55,  56,  68,  69 

State  capitol 64 

Sucamochee 53 

Sylvarina .' . 65 


PAGE 

Tallahatta  Creek 65 

Tchouticabouff  River 25 

Tertiary  formation 27 

Temperature  for  burning 19 

Tennessee 42,  44,  56,  68 

Tennessee  River 37,  68 

Thickness  of  Selma  chalk 42 

Thrasher 45 

Tibby  Creek 48 

Tishomingo  Co 29,  37,  39,  40,  68 

Tombigbee  River  .41,  46,  48,  49,  52,  69 

Town  Creek 58 

Tupelo 45,47,49 

Tuscaloosa  clays 40 

Tuscumbia  River 43,  45 


Verona 47,  48 

Vicksburg 59-62,  64,  70 

Vicksburg  formation 57,  59-67,  69 

Vossburg 66 

Wahalak 53,56 

Walnut 55 

Wayne  Co 66,67 

Waynesboro 67 

Well  records 48 

Wenasoga 44 

West  Point 49,  55,  68,  69 

West  Virginia 34 

Wet  process 31 

Wheeler 46 

Whetstone 37 

Winona 55 

Winston  Co 56 


Table  of  contents 4 

Tables,  list  of 7 


Yazoo  City 57,  58 

Yazoo  River 61 

Yellow  Creek 37 


Mississippi 

State  Geological  Survey 

ALBERT  F.  CRIDER,  DIRECTOR. 


BULLETIN  NO  2 


CLAYS  OF  MISSISSIPPI 


PART  I. 

Brick  Clays  and  Clay  Industry  of  Northern  Mississippi 

By  WILLIAM  N.  LOGAN 


i 


s 

L, 


m— m— ♦♦♦« 

BRANOON-NASHVILLE 


STATE  GEOLOGICAL  COMMISSION. 


His  Excellency,  James  K.  Vardaman Governor 


Dunbar  Rowland Director  of  Archives  and  History 

A.  A.  Kincannon Chancellor  of  the  State  University 

J.  C.  Hardy President  Agricultural  and  Mechanical  College 

Joe  N.  Powers State  Superintendent  of  Education 


GEOLOGICAL  CORPS. 


Albert  F.  Crider 

Dr.  William  N.  Logan 
Dr.  Calvin  S.  Brown.  . 


• Director 

Assistant  Geologist 
Assistard  Geologist 


LETTER  OF  TRANSMITTAL. 

State  Geological  Survey. 

Jackson,  Mississippi,  July  20,  1907. 

To  Governor  James  K.  Vardaman , Chairman , and  Members  of  the. 
Geological  Commission: 

Gentlemen — I submit  herewith  a report  on  the  clays  and  clay 
industry  of  northern  Mississippi  by  Dr.  William  N.  Logan,  and  respect- 
fully recommend  its  publication. 

Very  respectfully, 

Albert  F.  Crider, 

Director. 


TABLE  OF  CONTENTS. 


PAGE 

Letter  of  transmittal 3 

List  of  illustrations 16 

List  of  tables 19 

CHAPTER  I. 

, ORIGIN  AND  CLASSIFICATION  OF  CLAY. 

Position  and  relation  of  clay  to  other  earth  materials 23 

Lithosphere 23 

Regolith 23 

Durolith 23 

Rocks  of  the  regolith 24 

Sand 24 

Clay 24 

Loess 24 

Marl 24 

Peat 25 

Gravel,  pebbles  and  bowlders 25 

Rocks  of  the  durolith 25 

' Sandstone 25 

Conglomerate 25 

Shale 26 

Limestone 26 

Marble 26 

Granite 26 

Classification  of  rocks 27 

Composition  of  the  lithosphere 28 

Rock  alteration  and  decomposition 30 

Origin  of  clay 32 

Residual  clay 33 

Transported  clay 35 

Classification  of  clays 36 


CONTENTS. 


5 


Position  and  relation  of  clay  to  other  earth  materials — Continued. 
Lithosphere — Continued.  page 

Uses  of  clay 39 

Brick  clays 39 

Common  brick 39 

Vitrified  brick 39 

Fire  brick 40 

Tile  clay 40 

Flue  clay 40 

Stoneware  clay 40 

Earthenware  clay 40 

China  clay 40 

Cement  clay 40 

Ballast  clay 40 

Paper  clay 40 

Fuller’s  earth 40 

Adulterant  clays 40 

Terra  cotta  clay 40 

Miscellaneous  clays 40 

Occurrence  of  clays 41 

CHAPTER  II. 

CHEMICAL  PROPERTIES  OF  CLAY. 

Chemical  elements  of  clay 43 

Chemical  compounds  of  ultimate  analysis 46 

Silica 47 

Alumina 47 

Iron  oxide 48 

Calcium  oxide 48 

Magnesia 49 

Alkalies 49 

Minerals  in  clays 50 

Kaolinite 50 

Silica 51 

Iron 52 

Limonite 52 

Hematite 53 


6 


CONTENTS. 


Minerals  in  clays — Continued. 

Iron — Continued.  page 

Siderite 53 

Pyrite 54 

Marcasite 54 

Ilmenite 54 

Gypsum 55 

Calcite 56 

Feldspar 57 

Mica 58 

Hornblende 58 

CHAPTER  III. 

PHYSICAL  PROPERTIES  OF  CLAY. 

Structure 61 

Shrinkage 62 

Air  shrinkage 62 

Fire  shrinkage 64 

Specific  gravity 65 

Color 65 

Hardness 66 

Feel 67 

Odor 67 

Taste 67 

Slaking 67 

Plasticity 68 

Factors  of  plasticity 69 

Fusibility 70 

Mechanical  analysis 75 

Bonding  power 77 

Tensile  strength 77 

Porosity 81 

CHAPTER  IV. 

PROCESSES  OF  CLAY  MANUFACTURE. 

Mining 83 

Pick  and  shovel  method 83 


CONTENTS. 


7 


Mining — Continued.  page 

Plow  and  scraper  method 84 

Steam  shovel  method 84 

Transportation 85 

Wheelbarrow  haulage 85 

Cart  haulage 85 

Wagon  haulage 85 

Scraper  haulage 86 

Car  haulage 86 

Selection  of  timber  for  tracks 86 

Grinding 89 

Crushers 89 

Rolls 89 

Granulators 89 

Disintegrators 90 

Reduction  mills 92 

Dry  pans 92 

Ball  mills 92 

Screening 93 

Rotary  screen 93 

Inclined  stationary  screen 94 

Inclined  vibratory  screen 94 

Revolving  screen 95 

Tempering 95 

Soak  pit 95 

Ring  pit 95 

Pug  mill 96 

Wet  pan 97 

Molding 97 

Soft-mud  process 99 

Hand  molding 99 

Machine  molding 99 

Stiff-mud  process 102 

Plunger  type  machine 102 

Auger  type  machine 102 

Repressing  brick 105 

Dry  press  process 107 


8 


CONTENTS. 


PAGE 

Drying 109 

Principles  of  drying 109 

Methods  of  drying  brick 117 

Open  yard  dryer 117 

Rack  and  pallet  dryer 117 

Shed  dryer 118 

Artificial  dryers 118 

Burning 119 

Types  of  kilns 120 

Up-draft  kiln 121 

Scove  kiln 121 

Dutch  or  clamp  kiln 121 

Down-draft  kilns 122 

Beehive  kiln 122 

Rectangular  kiln 122 

Continuous  kilns 122 

CHAPTER  V. 

FUEL. 

Classes  of  fuels 124 

Wood 124 

Coal 125 

Varieties  of  coal 125 

Peat 125 

Lignite 125 

Bituminous  coal 126 

Anthracite 126 

Determination  of  the  calorific  value  of  coals . 126 

Mississippi  lignites 129 

Oil 130 

Gas 131 

CHAPTER  VI. 

PROPERTIES  OF  BRICK. 

Early  history  of  brick 133 

Brick  tests 133 


CONTENTS. 


9 


Brick  tests — Continued.  page 

Crushing  strength 134 

Absorption 134 

Impact  strength 136 

Rattler  test 136 

Tensile  strength 137 

Transverse  strength 137 

Weight  of  brick 138 

Size  of  brick 138 

Number  of  brick  in  construction  work 141 

Varieties  of  brick  in  a kiln  141 

CHAPTER  VII. 

IMPERFECTIONS  OF  BRICK. 

Defects  of  form 143 

Swollen  brick 143 

Warped  brick 144 

Cracked  brick 144 

Defects  of  color 145 

Light  color  in  red  burning  brick 145 

Efflorescence 146 

Kiln  white 146 

Wall  white 147 

Defects  of  structure 150 

Laminations 150 

Granulations 150 

Serrations 151 

Brittleness 151 

CHAPTER  VIII. 

GEOLOGY  OF  MISSISSIPPI  CLAYS. 

Paleozoic 153 

Devonian 153 

Sub-Carboniferous  (Mississippian) 154 

Mesozoic 155 

Cretaceous 155 


10 


CONTENTS. 


Mesozoic — Continued.  » 

Cretaceous — Continued.  page 

Tuscaloosa 155 

Eutaw  (Tombigbee) 157 

Selma  chalk  (rotten  limestone) 158 

Ripley 159 

Cenozoic 160 

Tertiary 160 

Eocene 160 

Midway 160 

Wilcox  (Lagrange) 160 

Claiborne 161 

Tallahatta  buhrstone 161 

Lisbon  and  undifferentiated  Claiborne 161 

Jackson 162 

Oligocene 163 

Vicksburg 163 

Miocene 164 

Grand  Gulf 164 

Quaternary 165 

Lafayette 165 

Natchez 167 

Loess 167 

Columbia 167 

Recent  deposits 168 

CHAPTER  IX. 

THE  CLAYS  AND  CLAY  INDUSTRIES  OF  NORTHERN  MISSISSIPPI  BY 

COUNTIES. 

Alcorn  County 169 

Geology 169 

Clay  industry 170 

Corinth 170 

Rienzi 171 

Attala  County 172 

Geology 172 


CONTENTS. 


11 


Attala  County — Continued.  page 

Clay  industry 172 

Kosciusko 172 

Carroll  County 173 

Geology 173 

Clay  County 175 

Geology 175 

Clay  industry 175 

West  Point 175 

Chickasaw  County 180 

Geology 180 

Clay  industry 180 

Okolona 180 

Houston 181 

New  Houlka 181 

Choctaw  County 182 

Geology 182 

Coahoma  County 183 

Geology 183 

Clay  industry 183 

Clarksdale 183 

DeSoto  County 186 

Geology 186 

Clay  industry 186 

Lake  View 186 

Hernando 188 

Grenada  County 188 

Geology 188 

Clay  industry 189 

Grenada 189 

Holcomb 191 

Hinds  County 191 

Geology 191 

Clay  industry 191 

Jackson 191 

Holmes  County 193 

Geology 193 


12 


CONTENTS. 


Holmes  County — Continued.  page 

Clay  industry : 193 

Lexington 193 

Durant 196 

Kemper  County 197 

Geology 197 

Clay  industry 197 

Wahalak 197 

Lafayette  County 197 

Geology 197 

Clay  industry 198 

College  Hill  Station 198 

Lauderdale  County 199 

Geology 199 

Clay  industry 199 

Lockhart 199 

Meridian 200 

Lee  County 200 

Geology 200 

Clay  industry 201 

Baldwin 201 

Saltillo 202 

Verona 202 

Nettleton 203 

Leflore  County 203 

Geology 203 

Clay  industry 203 

Greenwood 203 

Minter  City 204 

Lowndes  County 205 

Geology 205 

Clay  industry 205 

Columbus 205 

Madison  County 206 

Geology 206 

Clay  industry 206 

Canton 206 


CONTENTS. 


13 

PAGE 

Marshall  County 207 

Geology 207 

Clay  industry 208 

Holly  Springs 208 

Montgomery  County 210 

Geology 210 

Clay  industry 210 

Winona 210 

Monroe  County 211 

Geology 211 

Clay  industry 211 

Aberdeen 211 

Amory 212 

Newton  County 214 

Geology 214 

Clay  industry 214 

Newton 214 

Noxubee  County 215 

Geology 215 

Clay  industry 215 

Macon 215 

Oktibbeha  County 218 

Geology 218 

Clay  industry 218 

Starkville 218 

Agricultural  College. . . 220 

Maben 222 

Panola  County 223 

Geology 223 

Clay  industry 223 

Sardis 223 

Batesville 224 

Pontotoc  County 225 

Geology 225 

Clay  industry 225 

Pontotoc 225 

Prentiss  County 226 

Geology 226 


14 


CONTENTS. 


Prentiss  County — Continued.  page 

Clay  industry 226 

Boone ville 226 

Thrasher 227 

Rankin  County 227 

Geology 227 

Clay  industry 227 

Brandon 227 

Rankin  State  Farm 229 

Scott  County 230 

Geology 230 

Clay  industry ' 230 

Forest 230 

Morton 231 

Sunflower  County 232 

Geology 232 

Clay  industry 232 

Indianola 232 

Moorhead 234 

Tate  County 234 

Geology 234 

Clay  industry 234 

Senatobia 234 

Tippah  County 235 

Geology 235 

Clay  industry 235 

Ripley 235 

Tunica  County 236 

Geology 236 

Clay  industry 236 

Robinsonville 236 

Union  County 237 

Geology 237 

Clay  industry 237 

New  Albany 237 

Warren  County 239 

Geology 239 


CONTENTS. 


15 


Warren  County — Continued.  page 

Clay  industry 240 

Vicksburg 240 

Washington  County 242 

Geology 242 

Clay  industry 242 

Elizabeth 242 

Greenville 242 

Hampton 243 

Webster  County 244 

Geology 244 

Winston  County 244 

Geology 244 

Clay  industry 245 

Louisville 245 

Yalobusha  County 245 

Geology 245 

Clay  industry 245 

Water  Valley 245 

Yazoo  County 246 

Geology 246 

Clay  industry 247 

Yazoo  City 247 

Directory  of  Mississippi  Clay  Workers 248 

Acknowledgments 250 

Index 251 


LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS. 


PLATE  opp.  page 

I.  Mantle  rock  resting  on  bed  rock,  Vicksburg 22 

II.  Roadbed  in  the  Loess,  Natchez 24 

III.  A — Brickettes  for  tensile  strength  test. 62 

B — Electric  furnace  for  testing  clays 62 

IV.  Stiff-mud  brick  machine  of  the  auger  type 68 

V.  Either-side  rocker  dump  car 70 

VI.  Swivel-dumping  clay  car 72 

VII.  Conical  corrugated  clay  crusher 74 

VIII.  Horizontal  granulator 76 

IX.  Reduction  mill 78 

X.  Dry  pan 80 

XI.  Stiff-mud  brick  machine,  end  cut 84 

XII.  Rotary  clay  screen  of  the  octagon  form 86 

XIII.  Pug  mill 88 

XIV.  Wet  pan 96 

XV.  Soft-mud  brick  machine  and  pug  mill 98 

XVI.  Clay  disintegrator 108 

XVII.  Rotary  automatic  brick  cutter 110 

XVIII.  Steam-power  double-mold  brick  repress 112 

XIX.  A — Open-yard  system  of  drying,  Holly  Springs 118 

B- — Hand  molding,  and  starting  a scove  kiln,  Holly 

Springs 118 

XX.  A* — Setting  brick  in  a scove  kiln,  Starkville 120 

B — Shed  dryer,  brick  hacked  on  ground 120 

XXI.  A — Burned  brick  in  scove  kiln,  good  burn 122 

B — Over-burn  in  scove  kiln,  bottom  brick  slaggy 122 

XXII.  Eutaw  sands  on  Tombigbee  River,  Columbus 156 

XXIII.  A — Denudation  in  Lafayette  after  deforesting, 

Brandon 164 

B — Soft-mud  brick  hacked  under  covered  shed 164 

XXIV.  Sodding  Loess  slopes  with  Bermuda  grass  as  a pro- 
tection against  erosion,  National  Park,  Vicks- 
burg  166 


LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS. 


17 


PLATE  OPP.  PAGE 

XXV.  Outcrop  of  Buhrstone  shale-clay,  Vaiden 170 

XXVI.  A — Quartz  bowlders  of  the  Buhrstone,  Near  West. . . 172 

B — Erosion  in  the  Lafayette.  Vaiden 172 

XXVII.  Up -draft  clamp  kilns,  end  view,  West  Point 174 

XXVIII.  Taking  brick  from  off-bearing  belt  of  an  end-cut 

machine 176 

XXIX.  A — Power  house  of  the  Bullard  brick  plant,  Jackson  192 

B — Clay  pit  of  the  Bullard  brick  plant,  Jackson 192 

XXX.  A — Power  house  of  the  Love  brick  plant,  Durant 196 

B — Up-draft  clamp  kilns,  Durant 196 

XXXI.  Public  building  at  Durant  built  of  Mississippi  pressed 

brick 198 

XXXII.  A — Brown  loam  and  Lafayette  overlying  the  Jack- 

son,  Canton  clay  pit 204 

B — Stratified  Lafayette  with  talus,  railroad  cut, 

Newton 204 

XXXIII.  Allison  clay  pit,  Holly  Springs 206 

XXXIV.  A — Typical  erosion  in  Columbia  loam,  State  Exper- 
iment Farm,  Holly  Springs 208 

B — Lafayette  overlying  Wilcox,  Holly  Springs 208 

XXXV.  A — Clay  partings  in  the  Lafayette  sands,  Newton.  . .214 
B — Erosion  in  the  Lafayette  sands  by  underground 

water,  Newton 214 

XXXVII.  A — Resistant  layer  in  the  Columbia  loam,  Brandon  . 226 

B — Lafayette  sands,  Brandon 226 

XXXVIII.  A — Terrace  in  the  Loess  at  the  National  Cemetery, 

Vicksburg 228 

B — Vicksburg  limestone,  near  Brandon 228 

XXXIX.  A — Lignitic  stratum  in  the  Jackson  sands,  Morton.  . 230 

B — Local  fault  in  the  Jackson  strata,  Morton 230 

XL.  A — Vicksburg  limestone,  Vicksburg,  distant  view.  . . 238 

B — Vicksburg  limestone,  Vicksburg,  near  view 238 

XLI.  Erosion  in  Brown  loam  and  Loess,  National  Park, 

Vicksburg 240 

XLI I.  Typical  Loess  topography,  Vicksburg 242 


18 


LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS. 


PAGE 

Figure  1.  Brickette  mold 78 

2.  Outline  of  brickette 79 

3.  Side-dumping  clay  car 87 

4.  Double-friction  hoisting  drum 88 

5.  Clay  disintegrator 90 

6.  Pebble  cylinder  machine 91 

7.  Horse-power  soft-mud  brick  machine 98 

8.  Brick  mold  sanding  machine 100 

9.  Automatic  continuous  rotary  brick  cutter 103 

10.  Hand -power  repress  brick  machine 106 

11.  Six-mold  dry  press  brick  machine 107 

12.  Steel-rack  car  for  transporting  brick  on  palettes 115 

13.  Section  of  the  Lafayette,  Lexington 194 

14.  Cross  bedding  in  the  Lafayette,  Lexington . 195 


LIST  OF  TABLES. 


P'AGE 

1.  Composition  of  the  lithosphere 29 

2.  Loss  of  constituent  minerals  in  the  decomposition  of  crystal- 

line rocks 34 

3.  Loss  of  constituent  minerals  in  the  decomposition  of  lime- 

stone  34 

4.  Chemical  components  of  clay 43 

5.  Analyses  of  sojne  Mississippi  clays 44 

6.  Aluminous  minerals  found  in  kaolin 51 

7.  Chemical  composition  of  feldspars  (Dana) 57 

8.  Effect  of  coal  and  cinder  dilution  on  the  tensile  strength  of 

raw  and  burned  clays 63 

9.  Shrinkage  in  Mississippi  clays 64 

10.  Composition  and  fusing  points  of  seger  cones 72 

11.  Methods  of  grouping  in  mechanical  analysis 75 

12.  Mechanical  analyses  of  Mississippi  clays 77 

13.  Tensile  strength  of  Mississippi  brick  clays 80 

14.  Durability  of  different  woods 87 

15.  Crushing  machinery  used  in  Mississippi  brick  plants 93 

16.  Summary  of  tempering  machinery  used  in  Mississippi  brick 

plants 97 

17.  Methods  of  molding  Mississippi  brick 108 

18.  Number  of  grains  of  saturated  water  vapor  in  a cubic  foot  at 

various  temperatures 110 

19.  Calorific  value  of  different  fuels 123 

20.  Calorific  value  of  Alabama  coals 129 

21.  Composition  of  Mississippi  lignites 129 

22.  Amount  and  cost  of  petroleum  for  boiler  fuel 130 

23.  Composition  of  fuel  gases 132 

24.  Fuel  value  of  gases 132 

25.  Absorption  tests  of  Mississippi  bricks 135 

26.  Size  of  some  Mississippi  bricks 139 

27.  Analysis  of  tripoli  from  the  sub-carboniferous  near  Eastport  154 

28.  Analysis  of  Eastport  limestone 154 


20 


LIST  OF  TA'BLES. 


PAGE 

29.  Analysis  of  Cypress  Pond  limestone 155 

30.  Analysis  of  Mingo  shale 155 

31.  Analysis  of  ocherous  clay  from  the  Tuscaloosa,  six  miles 

north  of  Iuka 156 

32.  Analysis  of  clay  from  Penniwinkle  Hill 156 

33.  Analyses  of  Tuscaloosa  clays  from  Tishomingo  County 157 

34.  Analyses  of  Selma  chalk 158 

35.  Analysis  of  Ripley  sandstone 159 

36.  Analysis  of  clay,  Ripley 159 

37.  Analyses  of  Flatwoods  clays 160 

38.  Analysis  of  Wilcox  clay,  Grenada 161 

39.  Analyses  of  Wilcox  pottery  clays 161 

40.  Analysis  of  Barnett  clay 163 

41.  Analyses  of  Vicksburg  limestone 163 

42.  Analyses  of  Grand  Gulf  clay  stones 164 

43.  Analyses  of  Grand  Gulf  clays 165 

44.  Analysis  of  residual  Selma  clay,  Corinth 170 

45.  Analysis  of  Selma  limestone,  Corinth 171 

46.  Analysis  of  residual  clay,  Vaiden 174 

47.  Analysis  of  residual  clay,  Vaiden 174 

48.  Analyses  of  Selma  limestone  and  residual  clay,  West  Point . . 175 

49.  Analysis  of  surface  clay,  West  Point 177 

50.  Analysis  of  clay  used  at  the  Welch-Trotter  brick  plant,  West 

Point 178 

51.  Analyses  of  clays,  West  Point 178 

52.  Analysis  of  surface  clay,  West  Point 179 

53.  Analysis  of  Selma  limestone,  Okolona 180 

54.  Analysis  Selma  chalk,  Okolona 181 

55.  Analysis  of  brick  clay,  New  Houlka 182 

56.  Cost  of  building  300  feet  of  road  with  burned  clay  ballast, 

Clarksdale 184 

57.  Analyses  of  clays  used  by  the  Clarksdale  Brick  and  Tile  Co., 

Clarksdale 184 

58.  Analysis  of  buckshot  clay  used  at  the  Rheinhart  Brick  and 

Tile  Factory,  Clarksdale 185 

59.  Analysis  of  clay,  Lake  View 187 

60.  Analysis  of  alluvial  clay,  Lake  View 188 


LIST  OF  TABLES. 


21 
PAGE 

61.  Analyses  of  Columbia  clay,  Grenada 189 

62.  Record  of  artesian  well  at  the  Bledsoe  Brick  yard,  Grenada  . 190 

63.  Analysis  of  shale-clay,  Grenada 190 

64.  Analysis  of  brick  clay,  Jackson 191 

65.  Analysis  of  brick  clay,  Jackson 192 

66.  Analysis  of  Columbia  clay,  Lexington 196 

67.  Analyses  of  clays  from  the  Wilcox,  Lafayette  County 198 

68.  Analysis  of  Wilcox  stoneware  clay,  Lockhart 199 

69.  Analysis  of  Wilcox  clay,  Lockhart 200 

70.  Analysis  of  brick  clay,  Meridian 200 

71.  Analysis  of  clay  used  by  the  Baldwyn  Brick  and  Tile  Co., 

Baldwyn 201 

72.  Analyses  of  clays,  Greenwood 204 

73.  Analyses  of  alluvial  clays,  Minter  City 205 

74.  Analyses  of  clays,  Canton 207 

75.  Analysis  of  fire  clay,  Holly  Springs 208 

76.  Analyses  of  stoneware  clays,  Holly  Springs 209 

77.  Analysis  of  brick  clay,  Holly  Springs 210 

78.  Analysis  of  joint  clay,  Aberdeen 212 

79.  Analysis  of  yellow  loam  clay,  Amory 213 

80.  Analyses  of  clays,  Newton 215 

81.  Analyses  of  Selma  limestones,  Macon 216 

82.  Analysis  of  residual  Selma  clay,  Macon 216 

83.  Analysis  of  clay,  Macon 217 

84.  Analyses  of  limestone  and  clay  Starkville 218 

85.  Analyses  of  Selma  limestone  and  overlying  clay,  Starkville...  219 

86.  Analyses  of  limestone  and  clays,  Agricultural  College 220 

87.  Analyses  of  limestone  and  clays,  Agricultural  College 222 

88.  Analysis  of  white  clay,  Maben 222 

89.  Analysis  of. Columbia  clay,  Sardis 224 

90.  Analysis  of  unweathered  Loess,  Batesville 224 

91.  Analysis  of  Columbia  clay,  Pontotoc 225 

92.  Analysis  of  Columbia  clay,  Brandon 228 

93.  Analysis  of  Columbia  clay,  Brandon 229 

94.  Analysis  of  clay,  Rankin  County  State  Farm 229 

95.  Analyses  of  clays,  Forest 230 

96.  Analysis  of  Jackson  clay,  Morton 231 

97.  Analysis  of  alluvial  clay,  Indianola 232 


22 


LIST  OF  TABLES. 


PAGE 

98.  Analyses  of  brick  clays,  Indianola 233 

99.  Analysis  of  buckshot  clay,  Moorhead 234 

100.  Analysis  of  brick  clay,  Ripley 236 

101.  Analysis  of  Lafayette  clay,  New  Albany 237 

102.  Analysis  of  brick  clay,  New  Albany 238 

103.  Analysis  of  brick  clay,  New  Albany 238 

104.  Analysis  of  Lafayette  clay,  New  Albany 239 

105.  Analysis  of  clay,  Elizabeth 242 

106.  Analysis  of  alluvial  clay,  Greenville 243 

107.  Analysis  of  pottery  clay,  near  Webster 244 

108.  Analysis  of  surface  brick  clay,  Yazoo  City 247 

109.  Directory  of  Mississippi  clay  workers 248 


Plate 


MANTLE  ROCK  RESTING  ON  BED  ROCK,  VICKSBURG.  ALL  ROCK  ABOVE  ROADBED  IS  MANTLE  ROCK, 


CHAPTER  I 


ORIGIN  AND  CLASSIFICATION  OF  CLAY. 


POSITION  AND  RELATION  OF  CLAY  TO  OTHER  EARTH 

MATERIALS. 

Structurally  the  known  and  knowable  portion  of  the  earth  may 
be  divided  into  three  great  spherical  envelopes.  An  outer  gaseous 
sphere,  the  atmosphere;  a liquid  sphere,  the  water  sphere  or  hydro- 
sphere; and  a solid  rock  sphere  called  the  lithosphere. 

LITHOSPHERE. 

The  lithosphere  consists  of  a loose  mantle  of  earthy  material, 
the  regolith,  at  the  surface  and  a more  compact,  indurated  sub- 
stratum, the  durolith,  to  which  the  term  “bed  rock”  is  often  applied. 

Regolith. 

The  regolith  consists  of  unconsolidated  beds  of  sand,  gravel, 
pebbles,  bowlders  and  clay,  or  of  mixtures  of  these  together  with 
organic  matter  forming  loams,  marls,  peat,  and  soils.  The  regolith 
varies  in  thickness  from  a few  inches  to  several  hundred  feet.  It  is 
often  but  the  residual  product  resulting  from  the  weathering  of  the 
bed  rock.  Its  thickness,  therefore,  may  represent  the  amount  of 
bed-rock  decay  that  has  taken  place  at  that  point  or  it  may  represent 
the  amount  of  decay  which  has  taken  place  on  some  neighboring 
higher  area,  the  debris  of  which  has  been  transported  to  this  point. 

Durolith. 

The  durolith  consists  of  beds  of  consolidated  and  more  or  less 
indurated  rocks  such  as  shale,  sandstone,  limestone,  coal,  granite 
and  marble.  In  some  regions  the  durolith  is  completely  concealed 
by  the  regolith  so  that  it  may  be  studied  only  by  means  of  deep  cuts 
and  the  records  of  wells  which  pierce  its  strata.  As  to  the  thickness 
of  the  durolith  we  have  little  knowledge.  The  most  profound  excava- 
tions of  Nature  do  not  descend  to  depths  much  greater  than  one  mile. 
The  deepest  excavations  or  borings  made  by  man  transcend  this 
limit  only  by  a small  degree.  Therefore,  our  knowledge  of  the  thick- 
ness of  the  crust  of  the  earth,  as  well  as  our  knowledge  of  its  internal 
mass,  we  gain  only  by  inference. 


24 


CLAYS  OF  MISSISSIPPI. 


Rocks  of  the  Regolith, 

The  mantle  rocks  are  unconsolidated  fragments  of  rock  waste  and 
organic  decay  forming  sand,  clay,  marl,  loess,  and  gravels. 

Sand. — Sand  is  composed  of  hard  particles,  usually  of  quartz, 
though  sands  of  feldspar,  magnetite,  mica,  gypsum  and  other  minerals 
are  not  uncommon.  Most  quartzose  sands  contain  at  least  small 
quantities  of  some  of  these  minerals.  The  individual  grains  of  sand 
may  have  sharp  edges  and  irregular  forms.  These  are  generally 
particles  which  have  not  been  eroded  by  transportation.  Sharp  sands 
are  for  the  most  part  residual  sands.  Transported  sands  are  more 
regular  in  form  and  have  a rounded  surface,  or  sub-angular  edges. 
The  size  of  the  sand  particles  are  extremely  variable.  They  range 
from  the  coarseness  of  gravel  to  the  impalpability  of  dust.  In  color 
there  exists  a multiplicity  of  tints  and  shades.  In  some  sands  the 
coloring  matter  is  inherent;  in  many,  however,  it  is  due  to  the  pres- 
ence of  an  enclosing  film  of  pigment  such  as  oxide  of  iron. 

Clay. — Clay  is  a soft  rock  which  is  usually  smooth  or  greasy  to 
the  touch.  When  mixed  with  the  proper  proportion  of  water  it  may 
be  readily  molded  into  desired  forms  which  will  have  the  power  of 
retaining  their  shape.  This  property,  plasticity,  is  not  possessed 
in  a high  degree  by  other  rocks  and  is  therefore  one  of  the  deter- 
minative characters  of  clay.  Clay  is  a mechanical  mixture  of  min- 
erals. The  proportion  of  these  mineral  constituents  may  vary; 
hence  the  composition  of  clays  varies  greatly.  Aluminous  clays  are 
those  containing  a large  quantity  of  the  mineral  kaolinite,  which  is 
the  basis  of  all  clays.  Arenaceous  clays  contain  a large  quantity  of 
sand.  Calcareous  clays  contain  much  carbonate  of  lime.  Ferru- 
ginous clays  are  those  containing  considerable  proportion  of  some 
iron  compound. 

Loess. — Loess  is  a silty  material  composed  of  very  fine  particles 
of  clay,  sand,  limestone  and  other  earthy  materials  and  also  some 
organic  matter.  In  cuts  and  excavations  it  tends  to  maintain  verti- 
cal faces  and  a columnar  structure.  In  many  places  it  contains 
irregular  concretions  of  calcium  carbonate  and  the  shells  of  species 
of  gastropods. 

Marl. — Marl  is  a mixture  of  clay,  sand,  and  limy  material.  Shell 
marl  is  admixture  of  clay,  sand  and  the  shells  and  bones  of  animals, 
such  as  snails,  mussels,  fish  and  oysters.  Marls  may  be  of  marine 


Plate  II. 


ROADBED  IN  THE  LOESS,  NATCHEZ, 


ORIGIN  AND  CLASSIFICATION  OF  CLAY. 


25 


origin  formed  under  sea  water  or  they  may  be  of  lacustrine  origin, 
formed  in  lakes. 

Peat.- — Peat  is  a dark  substance  composed  mainly  of  vegetable 
matter  which  has  undergone  changes  under  water.  It  is  formed  by 
the  accumulation  of  vegetable  matter  in  lakes,  ponds  and  marshes. 
Its  amount  of  organic  matter  depends  inversely  upon  the  amount  of 
earthy  matter  deposited  with  the  vegetation. 

Gravel,  Pebbles  and  Bowlders. — Gravel,  pebbles  and  bowlders  are 
fragments  of  hard  rocks  of  sizes  varying  from  a pea  in  gravel  and 
pebbles,  to  rounded  fragments  several  feet  in  diameter  in  bowlders. 
Since  this  material  can  be  transported  only  by  streams  of  high  velocity, 
these  deposits  are  usually  found  where  such  streams  suddenly  lose 
their  velocity.  Mountain  streams  which  descend  to  plains  deposit 
such  rocks. 

G,  ? Rocks  of  the  Durolith. 

The  rocks  of  the  durolith  are  more  compact  than  those  of  the 
regolith.  They  may  exist  without  planes  of  division  or  they  may  be 
formed  of  layers;  in  the  former  case  they  are  said  to  be  massive,  in 
the  latter  to  be  stratified.  Sandstone,  shale,  limestone,  conglomerate, 
coal,  granite,  gneiss,  marble  and  slate  are  some  of  the  more  common 
kinds  of  bed-rock. 

Sandstone.— Sandstone  is  a rock  formed  of  grains  of  sand  bound 
together  by  some  cementing  substance.  The  ' cement  may  be  iron, 
lime  or  silica.  Coarse  sandstones  are  composed  of  large  sand  grains. 
Where  the  grains  are  small  the  texture  of  the  rock  is  fine.  Sand- 
stones may  be  massive  or  stratified.  Crossbedded  sandstones  are 
those  in  which  the  bedding  planes  do  not  lie  in  parallel  lines,  but  in 
which  one  set  of  planes  lies  oblique  to  another  set.  The  color  of  sand- 
stones is  usually  dependent  on  the  presence  of  films  of  coloring  matter 
coating  the  individual  grains. 

Conglomerate. — Conglomerate  is  formed  by  the  cementation  of 
gravel  and  pebbles.  As  in  the  case  of  sandstone,  the  cement  may  be 
iron,  lime  or  silica.  If  the  pebbles  are  rounded,  the  rock  is  called 
pudding  stone;  if  the  fragments  are  irregular  or  angular,  the  rock  is 
called  breccia.  Such  rocks  may  be  deposited  under  the  sea,  in  which 
case  they  may  be  identified  as  marine  in  origin  by  the  organic  remains 
usually  found  in  them.  Many  beds  of  such  rocks  devoid  of  organic 


26 


CLAYS  OF  MISSISSIPPI. 


remains  are  supposed  to  have  been  deposited  in  lodgement  areas  upon 
the  land. 

Shale. — Shale  is  compressed  clay  which  has  a form  of  cleavage 
causing  it  to  split  into  flakes  or  blocks.  Its  physical  properties  are 
similar  to  those  of  clay,  though  it  is  usually  harder  and  more  dense. 
Shale  is  formed  of  clay  which  has  been  carried  by  the  action  of  streams 
from  the  land  and  deposited  either  in  the  sea  or  in  lakes.  After 
deposition  the  clay  is  subjected  to  the  pressure  of  overlying  rocks, 
and  to  crustal  movements  which  increase  its  density  and  develop 
its  structure.  Since  the  clay  particles  are  smaller  and  lighter  than 
other  rock  fragments,  they  are  carried  further  out.  The  sorting  action 
may  result  in  beds  of  marked  purity.  The  color  of  shales  is  generally 
dark  or  blue  and  is  due  to  the  presence  of  either  some  iron  compound 
or  of  organic  matter.  The  removal  of  the  coloring  matter  by  weather- 
ing usually  results  in  lighter  colors. 

Limestone. — Limestone  is  composed,  for  the  most  part,  of  calcium 
carbonate  derived  from  the  skeletons  of  animals.  All  marine  animals 
secreting  either  an  endo-skeleton  or  an  exo-skeleton  may  contribute 
to  the  formation  of  such  beds.  Deposits  of  coral  form  one  of  the 
chief  sources  of  such  lime  material.  Skeletons  of  shell -fish  dropped 
within  the  littoral  zone  of  the  sea  become  broken  and  the  fragments 
cemented  together  to  form  shell  rock  which  by  further  changes  may 
form  compact  limestones.  Shells  of  animals  of  microscopic  size 
form  beds  of  chalk,  sometimes  of  great  extent  and  thickness. 

Marble.— Marble  is  a metamorphic  limestone  of  crystalline  nature. 
Slate  may  have  been  formed  likewise  from  the  metamorphism  of 
shale. 

Granite.— Granite  is  a crystalline  rock  of  igneous  origin.  It  is 
composed  mainly  of  varying  amounts  of  feldspar,  mica,  quartz  and 
hornblende,  with  very  much  smaller  amounts  of  other  minerals.  The 
crystals  are  usually  of  microscopic  size  and  closely  interlocked.  The 
color  of  the  granite  is  largely  dependent  on  the  feldspar,  which  is 
usually  either  pink  or  gray.  The  disintegration  and  the  decomposi- 
tion of  granite  result  in  the  formation  of  beds  of  sand  and  kaolin, 
the  former  being  derived  from  the  quartz  and  the  latter  from  the 
feldspar.  Wherever  granite  under  the  influence  of  metamorphic 
action  has  become  foliated,  it  forms  a rock  termed  gneiss. 


ORIGIN  AND  CLASSIFICATION  OF  CLAYS. 


27 


Rocks  are  usually  classed  as:  (1)  fragmental  rocks,  those  formed 
from  the  particles  of  older  rocks;  (2)  igneous  rocks,  those  formed 
from  the  cooling  of  molten  magmas;  (3)  metamorphic  rocks,  those 
which  have  undergone  alteration  under  the  influence  of  heat  and 
pressure. 

Fragmental  rocks,  which  are  deposited  under  water,  are  called 
aqueous  or  sedimentary.  Those  deposited  by  wind  are  called  eolian 
rocks.  Limestone,  sandstone  and  shale  are  common  examples  of 
fragmental  rocks;  granite,  syenite  and  gabbro  are  examples  of  igneous 
rocks;  while  marble,  slate  and  anthracite  coal  are  examples  of  meta- 
morphic rocks. 


Classification  of  Rocks. 

I.  Fragmental  rocks,  also  called  aqueous  or  sedimentary,  deposited 
by  winds,  water  and  ice  on  land  and  in  water. 

A.  Sand  group. 

1.  Sand. 

2.  Gravel. 

3.  Sandstone. 

4.  Pudding-stone. 

5.  Breccia. 

B.  Lime  group. 

1.  Chalk. 

2.  Coquina. 

3.  Limestone. 

4.  Dolomite. 

5.  Marl. 

6.  Travertine. 

7.  Tufa. 

C.  Clay  group. 

1.  Kaolin. 

2.  Clay. 

3.  Shale. 

4.  Loam. 

5.  Loess. 

6.  Till. 


28 


CLAYS  OF  MISSISSIPPI. 


II.  Igneous  rocks,  resulting  from  the  solidification  of  molten 
magmas. 

A.  Pyroclastic  rocks. 

1.  Volcanic  ash. 

2.  Lapilli  and  bombs. 

3.  Tuffs. 

4.  Scoriae. 

5.  Pumice. 

6.  Puzzolana. 

B.  Lavas  or  glassy  rock. 

1.  Acidic. 

a.  Obsidian. 

b.  Perlite. 

c.  Trachyte. 

d.  Rhyolite. 

2.  Basic. 

a.  Basalts. 

b.  Dolerite. 

C.  Phanerocrystalline  rocks. 

1.  Acidic. 

a.  Granite. 

b.  Syenite. 

2.  Basic. 

a.  Gabbros. 

b.  Peridotites. 

III.  Metamorphic  rocks., 

A.  Rocks  of  sedimentary  origin. 

1.  Marble. 

2.  Slate. 

3.  Quartzite. 

B . Rocks  of  igneous  origin. 

1.  Gneiss. 

2.  Schist. 

Composition  of  the  Lithosphere. 

The  rocks  of  the  lithosphere  are  composed  of  a large  number  of 
minerals,  these  minerals  in  turn  being  composed  of  elements.  To 


ORIGIN  AND  CLASSIFICATION  OF  CLAY.  29 

illustrate,  calcite  (CaC03),  the  principal  constituent  of  limestone, 
is  composed  of  three  elements,  calcium,  carbon  and  oxygen.  These 
are  united  in-  the  proportion  of  one  part  calcium  and  one  part  carbon 
to  three  parts  of  oxygen.  More  than  70  chemical  elements  have 
been  discovered  in  the  earth.  Eight  of  these  elements  form  nearly 
99  per  cent  of  the  solid  crust  of  the  earth. 

The  estimated  composition  of  the  solid  portion  of  the  lithosphere 
is  given  by  F.  W.  Clarke*  as  follows: 


TABLE  I. 

COMPOSITION  OF  THE  LITHOSPHERE. 


Element  Symbol 

1 . Oxygen (O) . . 

2.  Silicon (Si) . . 

3.  Aluminum (Al) . . 

4.  Iron (Fe). 

5.  Calcium (Ca). 

6.  Magnesium (Mg). 

7.  Sodium (Na). 

8.  Potassium (K) . . 

9.  Titanium (Ti) . . 

10.  Hydrogen (H) . . 

11.  Carbon (C)... 

12.  Phosphorus (P) . . 

13.  Manganese (Mn)  . 

14.  Sulphur (S)... 

15.  Barium (Ba)  . 

16.  Strontium (Sr) . . 

17.  Chromium (Cr)  . . 

18.  Nickel (Ni)  7. 

19.  Lithium (Li) . . 

20.  Chlorine (Cl).. 

21.  Fluorine (FI).. 


Per  Cent  in  Crust 
....  47.02 

. . . 28.06 

8.16 

4.64 

. . . . 3.50 

. . . . 2.62 

. . . . 2.63 

2.32 

41 

17 

12 

09 

07 

07 

05 

02 

01 

01 

01 

01 

01 


Total 


100.00 


The  last  thirteen  of  these  elements  comprise  only  1.05  per  cent 
of  the  solid  crust,  while  the  precious  metals  such  as  gold  and  silver, 
and  the  baser  metals  such  as  copper,  lead  and  zinc,  constitute  such  a 
small  percentage  of  the  rocks  as  to  be  considered  negligible  quantities. 

As  already  stated  the  elements  are  united  to  form  minerals  which 
make  up  the  rocks  of  the  lithosphere.  Oxygen  uniting  with  silicon 
produces  an  oxide  (Si02)  which  acts  as  an  acid.  The  acid  uniting 
with  bases  such  as  aluminum,  potassium  and  calcium  forms  silicates, 
and  uniting  with  other  elements  it  forms  oxides  of  iron,  calcium, 


♦Analysis  of  Rocks,  Bui.  168,  U,  S.  Geol.  Survey,  1900,  p.  15. 


30 


CLAYS  OP  MISSISSIPPI. 


magnesium,  etc.  These  by  the  union  with  acids  produce  sulphates, 
chlorides,  carbonates  and  other  combinations. 

Rock  Alteration  and  Decomposition. 

The  disintegration  of  rocks  is  brought  about  by  the  action  of  two 
sets  of  forces.  The  internal  dynamical  forces  of  the  earth  produced 
by  the  loss  of  heat  and  consequent  shrinkage  of  the1  earth,  result  in 
faulting,  folding,  oscillation  and  deformation,  accompanied  by 
vulcanism  and  earthquakes.  These  movements  disrupt  the  rocks  and 
contribute  to  their  decay. 

The  forces  of  the  atmosphere,  the  hydrosphere  and  the  life  sphere 
are  agents  of  destruction.  Air  which  contains  nitric  acid,  carbon 
dioxide,  oxygen  and  watery  vapor  is  an  active  agent  of  rock  decay. 
Fresh  faces  of  rocks  soon  lose  their  brightness  and  freshness  under 
the  corroding  effect  of  the  atmosphere. 

Sudden  changes  of  temperature  set  up  strains  in  rocks  which 
they  are  not  able  to  withstand  and  consequently  they  are  broken 
up,  and  their  fragments  exposed  to  other  weathering  agents.  The 
wind  catching  up  particles  of  rocky  material  blows  them  with  violent 
force  against  the  surfaces  of  rocks  and  wears  them  away. 

Water  running  over  the  surface  of  rocks  wears  them  by  means  of 
the  rock  particles  which  it  carries  with  it.  Falling  water  beats  upon 
and  erodes  the  surface  of  soft  rock.  Waves  erode  the  rocks  on  the 
shores,  breaking  them  apart  and  using  the  fragments  as  tools  for 
further  destruction.  Water  also  exerts  a chemical  action  on  rocks. 
Some  rocks  may  be  dissolved  by  pure  water  but  others  are  soluble 
only  in  waters  containing  acids. 

Limestones  which  yield  readily  to  the  action  of  acid-bearing 
waters  are  dissolved  and  carried  away  in  large  quantities  by  surface 
and  underground  waters  which  contain  acids  derived  from  decom- 
posing mineral  and  organic  matter.  Caverns,  sink-holes,  and  under- 
ground streams  and  passages  which  represent  the  dissolved  and  eroded 
portions  of  limestone  beds  are  generally  characteristic  of  limestone 
regions.  Carbon  dioxide  formed  by  plant  decay  and  collected  from 
the  atmosphere  by  falling  water  is  one  of  the  most  important  solvents. 

In  the  presence  of  moisture  oxygen  becomes  an  effective  agent 
of  rock  decay.  Compounds  of  iron  in  the  rocks,  are  attacked  by 
oxygen  and  decomposed,  thus  contributing  to  the  decay  of  the  rock. 


ORIGIN  AND  CLASSIFICATION  OF  CLAY. 


31 


The  process  of  oxidation  may  be  accompanied  by  the  process  of 
hydration,  in  which  case  the  oxidized  mineral  takes  up  water.  Hydra- 
tion usually  produces  a softer  mineral,  one  more  easily  eroded  and 
thus  weakens  the  rock. 

Roots  of  trees  growing  in  crevices  exert  a mechanical  action 
which  splits  the  rocks  apart,  and  a chemical  action  which  dissolves 
them  by  virtue  of  vegetable  acid  from  the  roots.  Man  by  digging 
wells,  excavating  tunnels  and  cultivating  the  soil  also  breaks  up  the 
rocks. 

The  decomposition  and  the  alteration  of  rocks  containing  silicates 
of  aluminum  is  the  source  of  clay.  The  group  of  silicates  known  as 
feldspars  constitutes  the  most  fruitful  source  of  clay.  Feldspar  is 
one  of  the  principal  constituents  of  granite  and  other  igneous  or  met- 
amorphic  rocks  of  the  granitoid  group.  For  this  reason  the  forma- 
tion of  residual  deposits  of  clay  is  closely  associated  with  the  disin- 
tegration of  granite  and  the  subsequent  alteration  of  its  silicate  min- 
erals. 

The  disintegration  and  decomposition  of  granite  is  accomplished 
by  the  various  mechanical  and  chemical  agents  which  are  actively 
engaged  in  rock  weathering.  The  alteration  of  the  silicates  is  accom- 
plished by  the  action  of  mineral  and  vegetable  acids  carried  through 
the  pores  of  the  rock  by  circulating  waters. 

One  of  the  most  destructive  of  these  acids  is  carbonic  acid(H2C03). 
This  acid  first  attacks  the  potash  and  soda,  hence  silicates  containing 
these  bases  are  the  first  to  be  broken  up.  Lime  and  magnesia  com- 
pounds are  next  attacked,  then  the  silicates  containing  iron,  and 
lastly  the  aluminum  silicates,  the  most  stable  of  the  compounds. 
These  complex  compounds  having  been  broken  up  into  their  com- 
ponent elements,  reactions  between  the  elements  occur  and  new  com- 
pounds are  formed.  Aluminum  uniting  with  silicic  acid  forms  new 
silicates  which  are  free  from  the  other  bases,  and,  since  they  are  more 
readily  soluble,  are  carried  away  by  circulating  waters. 

The  aluminum  silicates  thus  formed  are  kaolinite,  cimolite,  hal- 
loysite,  collyrite,  schrbtterite,  etc.;  also  some  oxides  or  hydroxides 
of  alumina,  such  as  gibbsite.  These  aluminous  minerals  form  beds 
of  rock  called  kaolin.  Kaolin  is  the  basis  of  all  clays.  The  purity 
of  a clay  depends  upon  the  percentage  of  kaolin  which  it  contains. 
The  higher  the  percentage  of  kaolin  the  purer  the  clay. 


32 


CLAYS  OF  MISSISSIPPI. 


The  other  minerals  which  are  usually  associated  with  kaolin  in 
clays  are  quartz,  calcite,  hematite,  siderite,  limonite,  pyrite,  feldspar, 
mica,  rutile,  lignite  and  dolomite.  The  kind  and  the  quantity  of 
these  mineral  impurities  affect  greatly  the  usefulness  of  the  clay. 
The  impurities  may  have  originated  from  the  decomposition  of  the  rock 
which  formed  the  clay,  or  they  may  have  been  deposited  with  the 
clay  during  a process  of  transportation  and  deposition,  or  they  may 
have  been  deposited  in  the  clay  by  circulating  waters.  The  quantity 
of  kaolin  present  and  the  amount  and  nature  of  the  impurities  serve 
as  a guide  to  the  uses  for  which  clay  may  be  employed,  but  the  phys- 
ical properties  of  the  clay  must  also  be  considered. 


Origin  of  Clay. 

The  origin  of  kaolin  has  been  suggested  in  the  foregoing  pages. 
We  have  now  to  consider  the  origin  of  the  various  deposits  of  clay 
which  are  found  in  the  rocks  of  the  lithosphere.  The  following  out- 
line suggests  a method  of  classification  of  clay  deposits  according  to 
their  origin: 

I.  Residual  clay. 

A.  Clays  derived  from  igneous  rocks. 

a.  Kaolin  derived  from  granite  and  other  feldspathic  rocks. 

b.  Ferruginous  and  impure  kaolin  derived  ordinarily  from 
igneous  rocks  containing  hornblende  and  other  ferro- 
magnesian  minerals. 

B.  Clays  derived  from  metamorphic  rock. 

a.  Kaolin  derived  from  gneiss  and  from  other  feldspathic 
metamorphic  rocks. 

b.  Impure  kaolin  or  clay  derived  from  slate,  schist  or 
argillaceous  marbles. 

C.  Clays  derived  from  sedimentary  rocks. 

a.  Surface  clay  derived  from  shale. 

b.  Surface  clay  derived  from  argillaceous  limestone. 

c.  Surface  clay  derived  from  argillaceous  sandstone. 


ORIGIN  AND  CLASSIFICATION  OF  CLAY. 


33 


II.  Transported  clays. 

A.  Fluvatile  clays,  those  transported  by  streams. 

a.  Delta  clays,  those  deposited  in  deltas. 

b.  Estuary  clays,  those  deposited  in  the  broad  mouths  of 
rivers. 

c.  Flood-plain  clays,  those  deposited  on  the  flood  plain  of 
rivers. 

B.  Lacustrine  clays,  transported  and  deposited  in  lakes. 

C.  Marine  clays,  transported  and  deposited  in  marine  waters- 

a.  Unconsolidated  beds  of  clay. 

b.  Shales,  compact  laminated  clays. 

D.  Glacial  clays,  those  transported  by  ice. 

a.  Till. 

b.  Loess  (in  part). 

E.  Eolian  clays,  transported  by  winds. 

a.  Loess  (in  part). 

b.  Adobe  clays. 

Residual  Clay. — Residual  clays  are  beds  of  kaolin  or  the  more 
common  varieties  of  clay  formed  in  place  by  the  decomposition  of 
other  rocks.  As  has  already  been  stated  the  disintegration  of  the 
rocks  is  brought  about  by  weathering.  The  alteration  of  the  con- 
stituent minerals  is  accomplished  by  acids  carried  by  meteoric  waters. 
The  depth  to  which  kaolinization  may  take  place  is  necessarily  lim- 
ited to  a thin  outer  zone  of  lithosphere.  Very  rarely  such  deposits 
are  of  greater  thickness  than  100  feet,  and  the  greater  majority  would 
fall  within  the  limit  of  a fourth  of  that  thickness. 

In  exceptional  cases  kaolinization  is  thought  to  be  produced  by 
ascending  solutions.  Under  such  conditions  the  deposits  may  extend 
to  depths  greater  than  those  produced  by  the  action  of  surficial  agents. 
The  following  table,  compiled  from  Merrill's  Rocks,  Rock  Weather- 
ing and  Soils,  pp.  215-17,  illustrates  the  loss  of  constituent  minerals 
which  crystalline  rocks  may  suffer  during  decomposition: 


34 


CLAYS  OF  MISSISSIPPI. 


TABLE  2. 

LOSS  OF  CONSTITUENT  MINERALS  IN  THE  DECOMPOSITION  OF  CRYSTALLINE 

ROCKS. 


Gneiss  Phonolite  Syenite 

Decom-  Decom- 

Constituent  Fresh  posed  Fresh  posed  Fresh  Decomposed 

Silica  (Si02) 60.69  45.31  55.67  55.72  59.70  58.50  46.27 

Alumina  (A1203) 16.89  26.55  20.64  22.19  18.85  25.71  38.57 

Iron  oxide  (Fe203) ... . 9.06  12.18  3.14  3.44  4.85  3.74  1.36 

Lime  (CaO) 4.44  Trace  1.40  1.28  1.34  .44  .34 

Magnesia  (MgO) 1.06  . 89  . 42  . 44  . 68  Trace  .25 

Potash  (K20) 4.25  2.40  5.56  6.26  5.97  1.96  .23 

Soda  (Na20) 2.82  1.10  7.12  2.65  6.29  1.37  . 37 

Phosphoric  acid  (P2Os)  .25  . 47  

Ignition 62  13.75  4.33  7.79  1.88  5.85  13.61 


Total 100.08%  99.98%  98.28%  99.77%  99.56%  97.57%  101.00% 


The  first  analysis  under  decomposed  syenite  represents  the  first 
stage  in  decomposition,  while  the  second  analysis  represents  the  last 
stage  in  which  a kaolin-like  residue  is  produced.  The  increase  in 
the  amount  of  alumina  in  all  the  decomposition  products  is  very 
noticeable. 

Residual  clays  also  result  from  the  decomposition  of  some  lime- 
stones and  sandstones.  Limestones  containing  just  a small  per  cent 
of  clay  will  often  form  clay  beds  of  appreciable  thickness  through 
long  continued  decomposition.  Calcium  carbonate  is  dissolved  out 
by  meteoric  water  containing  acids  and  the  insoluble  clay  accumu- 
lates. The  cementing  material  of  sandstones  is  dissolved  and  sand 
particles  and  clay  particles  thus  freed  are  separated  by  the  sorting 
action  of  running  water.  The  following  analyses  of  limestone  and 
the  residual  product  exhibit  the  loss  of  constituent  minerals  by 
decomposition: 

TABLE  3. 

LOSS  OF  CONSTITUENT  MINERALS  IN  THE  DECOMPOSITION  OF  LIMESTONE. 


Constituent 
Silicon  dioxide  (Si02) 
Aluminum  oxide  (A1203) 

Iron  oxide  (Fe203) 

Calcium  oxide  (CaO) 
Magnesium  oxide  (MgO) . 
Sulphur  trioxide  (S03) . . . 

Moisture  (H20) 

Volatile  matter  (C02etc.) 

Total 


Limestone  1 
Decom- 


Fresh 

posed 

Fresh 

32.81 

63.63 

20.60 

11.15 

10.34 

7.63 

4.65 

8.75 

4.62 

22.69 

3.75 

41.81 

1.53 

.50 

.81 

1.55 

.34 

.25 

2.75 

4.25 

.85 

22.61 

7.77 

23.15 

99.74%  99.33%  99.72% 


2 Limestone  3 


Decom- 

Decom- 

posed 

Fresh 

posed 

65.30 

17.03 

76.60 

12.63 

21.00 

18.37 

12.18 

3.33 

2.00 

1.50 

29.29 

.90 

.63 

.25 

.72 

.70 

4.75 

.75 

.55 

2.27 

28.20 

.97 

99.51% 

100.32% 

100.09% 

These  samples  were  taken  from  the  Selma  chalk  and  the  residual  clay  overlying  it. 


ORIGIN  AND  CLASSIFICATION  OF  CLAY. 


35 


Transported  Clay. — The  residue  formed  by  the  decomposition  of 
rocks  may  not  be  allowed  to  remain  on  the  surface  where  it  was 
formed.  By  the  action  of  gravity,  of  water,  of  wind,  or  of  ice  it  may 
be  transported  and  deposited  at  some  distant  point.  The  particles 
of  such  residium  accumulating  upon  a slope  will,  influenced  by  gravity, 
gradually  creep  to  the  bottom  of  the  slope.  The  water  which  falls 
upon  the  slope  and  runs  away  to  the  lower  levels  to  form  the  rills, 
brooks  and  larger  streams  becomes  filled  with  the  finer  particles, 
the  size  of  the  particles  carried  being  dependent  on  the  velocity  of 
the  water,  which  in  turn  is  dependent  upon  the  slope.  A stream 
having  a velocity  of  only  one-third  of  a mile  an  hour  is  sufficient  for 
the  transportation  of  clay  particles.  Because  of  the  minute  size  of 
the  particles  and  their  light  weight,  clay  is  one  of  the  first  materials 
to  be  taken  away  from  a residual  deposit  by  running  water.  When- 
ever the  stream  carrying  the  particles  retards  its  velocity,  it  drops 
its  load  in  proportion  to  the  loss  of  velocity.  A small  decrease  in 
velocity  will  cause  the  loss  of  only  the  coarser  particles.  A sudden 
and  complete  loss  of  velocity  would  mean  the  deposition  of  all  sizes 
of  the  materials  held  in  suspension.  The  presence  of  coarse  sand  in 
clays  may  thus  be  explained.  Rivers  may  carry  fine  particles  of 
rock  material  to  lake  or  sea  and  as  the  waters  of  the  stream  mingle 
with  the  waters  of  the  larger  body  they  lose  their  velocity  and  deposit 
their  load.  Thus  it  is  that  estuary  and  delta  deposits  are  formed. 
Carried  by  ocean  currents  and  redeposited  on  the  sub-aqueous  coastal 
shelf,  beds  of  marine  sands  and  clays  are  formed,  the  coarser  material 
being  deposited  nearest  the  shore.  Deposits  of  sand,  silt  and  clay 
are  made  on  the  flood-plains  of  rivers  during  the  overflow  periods. 
The  coarser  material  is  thrown  down  near  the  banks  of  the  stream, 
where  the  water  on  leaving  the  channel  loses  the  greater  part  of  its 
velocity  and  therefore  its  capacity  for  carrying  suspended  matter. 
The  finer  material  is  carried  farther  from  the  channel  and,  by  the 
sorting  action  of  water,  beds  of  almost  pure  clay,  the  finest  material, 
may  be  found  upon  the  flood-plain. 

Lacustrine  clays  are  clay  deposits  formed  along  the  shores  and  on 
the  bottom  of  lakes,  the  material  of  which  is  derived  from  the  land 
and  carried  in  by  streams.  In  a similar  way  marine  clays  are  formed 
on  the  ocean  bed.  When  these  clay  beds,  in  the  course  of  deposition, 


36 


CLAYS  OF  MISSISSIPPI. 


become  deeply  buried  under  other  deposits  they  become  compacted 
into  a firm  clay  rock  called  shale. 

During  the  glacial  period  vast  quantities  of  rock  material  were 
transported  by  ice  and  deposited  in  an  irregular  sheet  of  mantle  rock 
to  which  the  name  “drift”  has  been  applied.  The  drift  contains  in 
many  places  beds  of  clay  called  till.  Streams  of  water  coming  from 
the  front  of  the  melting  glaciers  carried  away  the  fine  particles  of 
clay  and  rock  flour  and  spread  them  in  some  places  over  large  areas. 
This  fine,  silty  material  is  called  loess.  Part  of  the  loess  was  trans- 
ported and  redeposited  by  winds,  thus  producing  our  second  form 
of  loess  deposits  under  the  head  of  eolian  deposits.  Adobe  clays  of 
the  plains  are  thought  to  be  of  eolian  origin. 


Classification  of  Clays. 

Clays  may  be  classified  according  to  their  origin,  according  to 
their  mode  of  occurrence;  according  to  their  chemical  or  physical 
properties,  and  according  to  their  uses.  A large  number  of  classifi- 
cations have  been  suggested  by  different  writers  on  ceramics.  None 
of  these  classifications  are  wholly  free  from  objections  for  the  reason 
that  it  is  difficult  to  arrange  a grouping  which  will  be  free  from  over- 
laps. The  following  classification  was  arranged  by  Wheeler:* 

Kaolin. 

1.  White  ware China  clay. 

Ball  clay. 

Plastic  fire  clay 

2.  Refractory < Flint  clay. 

Refractory  shale. 

3.  Potter’s Plastic  clay  and  shale  of  moderate  fusibility. 

Paving  brick  clay  and  shale. 

4.  Vitrifying Sewer  pipe  clay  and  shale. 

Roofing  tile  clay  and  shale. 

Common  brick  clay  and  shale. 

5.  Brick Terra  cotta  clay  and  shale. 

Drain  tile  clay  and  shale. 

6.  Gumbo Burnt  clay  ballast. 

7.  Slip Clays  of  very  easy  fusibility. 


♦Clays  of  Missouri,  p.  25. 


ORIGIN  AND  CLASSIFICATION  OF  CLAYS. 


37 


Wheeler’s  classification  is  based  primarily  on  the  use  of  clay.  As 
the  term  implies  the  first  group  of  clays  is  employed  in  the  manu- 
facture of  white  burning  ware.  The  refractory  clays  are  the  fire 
clays  used  in  the  manufacture  of  fire  brick,  gas  retorts,  crucibles, 
saggars,  muffles,  etc.  Pottery  clays  are  employed  in  the  manufacture 
of  stoneware.  Vitrifying  clays  are  used  in  the  manufacture  of  pav- 
ing brick,  sewer  pipe,  and  roofing  tile.  Brick  clays  are  those  em- 
ployed in  the  manufacture  of  brick,  terra  cotta  and  drain  tile.  Gumbo 
clays  are  alluvial  clays  employed  in  the  manufacture  of  burnt  ballast 
for  road  metal.  Slip  clays  are  clays  of  low  fusibility  and  are  used  to 
glaze  clay  wares  such  as  stoneware. 

In  his  Economic  Geology  of  the  United  States  Reis  gives  the  fol- 
lowing form  of  classification  based  partly  on  mode  of  origin  and 
partly  on  physical  characters: 

1.  Residual  clays. 

A.  White  burning  (kaolin,  formed  from  feldspathic  rocks). 

B.  Colored  burning  (formed  from  igneous,  metamorphic,  and 
many  sedimentary  rocks). 

2.  Clastic,  or  mechanically  formed  clays. 

A.  Water  formed  (of  variable  extent,  depending  on  locality 
and  mode  of  deposit). 

a.  White  burning  (ball  and  paper  clays). 

b.  Colored  burning  (brick  and  pottery  clays). 

B.  Glacial  clays  (often  stony,  all  colored  burning). 

C.  Wind -formed  clays  (some  loess). 

3.  Chemical  precipitates  (some  flint  clays). 

The  following  classification  of  Buckley  (Clays  and  Clay  Indus- 
tries of  Wisconsin)  is  based  on  the  origin  of  the  deposits: 

I.  Residual,  derived  from: 

A.  Granitic  or  gneissoid  rocks. 

B.  Basic  igneous  rocks. 

C.  Limestone  or  dolomite. 

D.  Slate  or  shale. 

E.  Sandstone. 

II.  Transported  by: 

A.  Gravity  assisted  by  water.  Deposits  near  the  heads  and 
along  the  slopes  of  ravines. 


38 


CLAYS  OF  MISSISSIPPI. 


B.  Ice.  Deposits  resulting  mainly  from  the  melting  of  ice 

of  the  glacial  epoch. 

C.  Water.  1.  Marine.  2.  Lacustrine.  3.  Stream. 

D.  Wind.  Loess. 

The  classification  offered  by  Ladd  (Clays  of  Georgia)  is  based  on 
the  origin  and  occurrence  of  clays.  It  is  given  below: 

Indigenous. 

A . Kaolins. 

a.  Superficial  sheets. 

b.  Pockets. 

c.  Veins. 

Foreign  or  transported. 

A . Sedimentary. 

a.  Marine. 

1.  Pelagic. 

2.  Littoral. 

b.  Lacustrine. 

c.  Stream. 

B.  Meta-sedimentary. 

C.  Residual. 

D.  Unassorted. 

The  indigenous  clays  are  those  formed  in  situ  and  rest  upon  the 
rock  from  which  they  were  derived.  The  foreign  group  includes  those 
which  have  been  transported  and  redeposited.  The  marine  clays 
were  deposited  in  sea  water,  the  littoral  near  the  shore,  and  the 
pelagic  in  deep  water.  The  lacustrine  clays  were  deposited  in  lake 
basins.  Stream  clays  are  deposited  on  the  flood  plains  and  in  the 
deltas  of  rivers.  Meta-sedimentary  clays  are  residual  clays  derived 
from  once  transported  sediments  such  as  the  lighter  pyroclastic  rocks. 
Residual  clays  are  those  formed  by  the  decomposition  of  argillaceous 
sedimentary  rocks,  such  as  limestones  and  sandstones.  Unassorted 
clays  include  impufie  glacial  clays  which  contain  sand,  gravel  and 
bowlders  and  are  often  called  bowlder  clays. 

Beyer  and  Williams  use  the  following  classification  of  which  they 
say:  “In  the  following  scheme,  which  in  the  main,  is  the  classification 
offered  by  Prof.  Edward  Orton  of  Columbus,  Ohio,  the  subdivisions 


ORIGIN  AND  CLASSIFICATION  OF  CLAYS. 


39 


are  somewhat  more  extensive,  and  while  ultimate  basis  is  that  of 
origin,  the  physical  and  chemical  properties  are  taken  into  account 
in  making  some  of  the  lesser  subdivisions.” 


Primary  or  residual 

clays 


Entirely  decomposed  feldspathic  rock. . .Kaolin  or  China  clay. 

, f English  Cornwall-stone. 

Part, ally  decomposed  feldspath.c  rock  | Porzellan  Erde  of  the  Germans. 


Highly  refractory 


Flint  fire  clay. 
Plastic  fire  clay. 


Secondary  or  transport- 
ed clays 


Deposited  in  < 
still  water 


Fire  clay. . . 


[ No.  2 fire  clay. 
Moderately  refractory . <j  Stoneware  clay. 

[ Sewer-pipe  clay. 


[ Slaty  shales. 

Indurated  shales  not  metamorphosed  ■{  Bituminous  shales. 

[_  Clay  shales. 


Deposited  from  running 
water 


Alluvium. 
Sandy  clays. 
Loam. 


f Leached — Whitish  or  red  bowlder  clay. 

Deposited  by  glacial  action, 

[ Unleached — Blue  bowlder  clay. 


Deposited  by  winds — loess. 


Uses  of  Clay. 

The  uses  of  clay  are  so  many  and  varied  that  it  is  difficult  to  make 
a short,  comprehensive  classification  based  upon  that  factor.  How- 
ever, the  more  important  uses  of  clay  are  given  in  thejfollowing 
groups : 

Brick  Clays. — Common  brick. — These  clays  may  be  classified 
according  to  the  method  of  molding  as  soft  mud,  stiff  mud  or  dry 
pressed;  according  to  color,  as  red,  salmon,  mottled,  etc. ; according 
to  the  position  in  the  kiln,  as  eye,  body;  according  to  position  in  the 
building,  as  front  and  back;  according  to  form,  as  hollow,  orna- 
mental; according  to  treatment  in  burning,  as  vitrified,  lithified, 
glazed,  enameled  and  adobe  (sun  dried). 

Vitrified  brick. — Vitrified  brick  are  made  of  clay  shales  and  used 
for  pavements  and  buildings.  They  are  compact,  non-porous,  stony, 
have  great  crushing  strength  and  a high  degree  of  hardness. 


40 


CLAYS  OF  MISSISSIPPI. 


Fire  brick.- — Fire  brick  are  made  from  highly  refractory  clays 
and  used  in  the  manufacture  of  ovens,  furnaces,  as  linings  for  fire- 
places, fire  boxes  and  stoves. 

Tile  clay. — Tile  clay  may  be  either  common  clay,  shale,  or  fire 
clay  -used  in  the '^manufacture  of  drain  tile,  irrigating  tile,  roofing 
tile,  floor  tile,  wall  tile  and  fireplace  tile. 

Flue  clay. — Flue  clay  is  used  in  the  manufacture  of  chimney 
flues,  ventilating  flues  and  flue  brick  and  tile. 

Stoneware  clay. — Stoneware  clay  is  used  in  the  manufacture  of 
jugs,  churns,  crocks,  pitchers,  jars,  urns,  jardiniers  and  sewer  pipe. 

Earthenware  clay. — Earthenware  clay  is  employed  in  the  manu- 
facture of  unglazed  ware,  such  as  flower  pots,  filters  and  drain  tile. 

China  clay. — China  clay  is  used  in  the  production  of  chinaware, 
porcelain,  graniteware  and  whiteware,  such  as  urinals,  water  closet 
bowls,  basins,  lavatories  and  sinks. 

Cement  clay. — Cement  clay  is  used  in  the  manufacture  of  Portland 
cement.  When  employed  for  this  purpose  the  clay  is  mixed  with  a 
certain  portion  of  limestone.  After  being  pulverized  it  is  burned  to 
vitrification  and  reground  to  a fine  flour. 

Ballast  clay. — Ballast  clay  is  employed  in  the  manufacture  of 
a road  metal  for  walks,  wagon  roads,  railroads,  barn  floors  and  also 
for  the  purpose  of  deadening  the  sound  in  floors. 

Paper  clay. — Paper  clay  is  used  as  a filler  for  printing  paper, 
wall  paper  and  various  other  papers.  The  clay  for  this  purpose  is 
utilized  in  the  raw  state. 

Fuller's  earth. — Fuller’s  earth  is  used  to  refine  crude  oil.  Most 
clays  used  for  this  purpose  require  washing.  All  clay  must  be  thor- 
oughly dried  and  pulverized. 

Adulterant  clays. — Adulterant  clays  are  employed  in  the  adul- 
teration of  soap,  paint  and  food. 

Terra  cotta  clay. — Terra  cotta  clay  is  used  in  the  manufacture  of 
terra  cotta  brick  and  lumber,  both  plain  and  ornamental. 

Miscellaneous  clays. — Clays  are  also  used  in  the  manufacture  of 
chemical  apparatuses,  such  as  evaporating  dishes,  pestles,  mortars, 
ovens  and  crucibles.  They  are  used  for  puddling  in  reservoirs,  to 
temper  soil,  as  an  absorbent,  for  medicinal  purposes,  for  artists’ 


ORIGIN  AND  CLASSIFICATION  OF  CLAYS. 


41 


moulding  material,  in  relief  modeling  in  schools,  in  gas  retorts,  glass 
pots,  smelters,  saggars,  electric  insulating  tubes,  blocks,  door  knobs, 
fire  kindlers,  fence  posts,  tombstones,  copings,  ink  bottles,  emery 
wheels. 

Occurrence  of  Clays* 

Clays  occur  either  in  soft  unconsolidated  beds  or  as  shale.  Shale 
differs  in  structure  from  other  clays.  It  parts  readily  into  thin 
plates  or  irregular  blocks.  The  direction  of  its  cleavage  is  generally 
horizontal.  In  hardness  it  varies  from  that  of  the  softest  clay  to 
that  of  slate,  which  is  a product  of  shale  metamorphism.  In  color 
shales  vary,  through  drab,  gray,  black  and  dark  blue.  Weathered 
shales  are  usually  yellow,  red  or  brown.  By  the  action  of  weather- 
ing the  ferrous  iron  of  the  darker  shales  is  changed  to  the  ferric  state, 
thus  producing  lighter  colors.  The  weathered  shales  exhibit  a higher 
degree  of  plasticity  than  the  un weathered.  They  are  also  usually 
very  fine  grained.  In  chemical  composition  they  are  commonly 
more  uniform  than  other  clays. 


CHAPTER  II 


CHEMICAL  PROPERTIES  OF  CLAY. 


CHEMICAL  ELEMENTS  OF  CLAY. 

The  chemical  elements  composing  the  minerals  commonly  present 
in  clay  are:  oxygen,  silicon,  aluminum,  iron,  calcium,  magnesium, 
sodium,  potassium,  titanium,  hydrogen,  carbon  and  sulphur.  The 
last  two  may  occur  as  simple  elementary  substances  uncombined. 
The  other  elements  are  combined  to  form  such  compounds  as  lime, 
water  and  silica.  In  the  chemical  determination  of  these  elements 
they  are  represented  as  combined  with  oxygen  to  form  oxides. 


TABLE  4. 

CHEMICAL  COMPONENTS  OF  CLAY. 


Name  of  Component 

Silica 

Alumina 

Ferric  oxide 

Lime 

Magnesia 

Potash 

Soda 

Titanic  acid 

Sulphur  trioxide 

Carbon  dioxide 

Water 


Chemical  Symbol 

Si02 

AI2O3 

Fe203 

CaO 

MgO 

KjO 

Na20 

Ti02 

S03 

COa 

H20 


Iron,  lime,  magnesia,  potash  and  soda  are  classed  as  fluxing  im- 
purities. In  clay  the  lime  is  usually  combined  with  carbon  dioxide 
(C02)  to  form  calcium  carbonate  (CaC03),  or  with  water  and  sulphur 
trioxide  to  form  hydrous  sulphate  of  lime  or  gypsum.  Other  com- 
binations also  exist  so  that  an  ultimate  chemical  analysis  such  as 
the  above  does  not  present,  for  instance,  the  amount  of  gypsum 
which  is  present  in  the  clay,  but  merely  the  amount  of  water,  lime 
and  sulphur  trioxide  that  is  present  in  the  clay.  The  determination 
of  the  percentage  of  the  different  mineral  compounds  in  the  clay  is 
called  its  rational  analysis.  The  rational  analysis  may  be  computed 
from  the  ultimate  analysis  and  is  useful  in  making  clay  mixtures. 


44 


CLAYS  OF  MISSISSIPPI 


The  following  table  presents  the  ultimate  analysis  of  clays  belong- 
ing to  each  of  the  three  classes  of  clays  found  in  the  State.  They 
were  selected  to  show  the  variation  in  the  constituent  elements  in 
each  group,  and  between  each  group. 


TABLE  5* 

ANALYSES  OF  SOME  MISSISSIPPI  CLAYS. 
Kaolin. 


Per  ( 

Zent  — 

Constituent 

No.  1 

No.  e 

No.  3 

No.  A 

Moisture  (HjO) 

48 

1.11 

.20 

1.19 

Volatile  matter  (CO2) 

15.01 

13.88 

7.10 

8.00 

Silicon  dioxide  (Si02) 

44.23 

42.92 

60.89 

39.35 

Aluminum  oxide  (A^Oj) . . 

38.82 

41.30 

29.75 

38.73 

Iron  oxide  (Fe2C>3) 

81 

.61 

.31 

9.39 

Calcium  oxide  (CaO) 

19 

.37 

.94 

.34 

Magnesium  oxide  (MgO) . . . 

13 

.13 

.35 

.70* 

Sulphur  trioxide  (SO3)  .... 

45 

.18 

.39 

.51 

Total 

100.12 

100.57 

99.93 

98.21 

Stoneware  Clays. 

Per  Cent  

Constituent 

No.  1 

No.  2 

No.  3 

No.  A 

Moisture  (H2O) 

54 

.77 

.94 

1.51 

Volatile  matter  (CO2) 

7.40 

6.77 

6.64 

8.07 

Silicon  dioxide  (Si02) 

59.12 

62.58 

67.70 

61.69 

Aluminum  oxide  (AI2O3)  ■ . 

27.44 

27.58 

19.69 

24.91 

Iron  oxide  (Fe20j) 

4.39 

1.57 

3.04 

2.04 

Calcium  oxide  (CaO) 

34 

.40 

1.06 

.34 

Magnesium  oxide  (MgO) . . . 

28 

Trace 

.58 

.83 

Sulphur  trioxide  (SO3) 

Trace 

.19 

.20 

Total 

99.51 

99.67 

100.84 

99.59 

Brick  Clays. 

Per  Cent  

Constituent 

No.  1 

No.  2 

No.  3 

No.  A 

Moisture  (H2O) 

5.50 

4.25 

1.08 

1.80 

Volatile  matter  (C02etc.)  . . 

5.00 

7.77 

2.11 

4.37 

Silicon  dioxide  (Si02) 

67.60 

63.63 

80.76 

75.21 

Aluminum  oxide  (AI2O3) . . . 

12.55 

10.34 

8.50 

5.47 

Iron  oxide  (Fe203) 

7.60 

8.75 

4.50 

5.47 

Calcium  oxide  (CaO) 

80 

3.75 

1.50 

.87 

Sulphur  trioxide  (SO3) 

17 

.34 

.04 

.52 

Total 

100.00 

99.33 

98.94 

98.88 

Reis  has  summarized  the  facts  to  be  obtained 

from 

the  ultimate 

analysis  of  a clay  as  follows  (see  N.  J.  Geol.  Survey,  Vol.  VI): 


♦Includes  potassa  and  soda. 


CHEMICAL  PROPERTIES  OF  CLAY. 


45 


“1.  The  purity  of  the  clay,  showing  the  proportion  of  silica, 
alumina,  combined  water  and  fluxing  impurities.  High  grade  clays 
show  a percentage  of  silica,  alumina  and  water,  approaching  quite 
closely  to  those  of  kaolinite. 

“2.  The  refractoriness  of  the  clay,  for,  other  things  being  equal, 
the  greater  the  total  sum  of  fluxing  impurities,  the  more  fusible  the 
clay. 

“3.  The  color  to  which  the  clay  burns.  This  may  be  judged 
approximately,  for  clays  with  several  per  cent  or  more  of  ferric  oxide 
will  burn  red,  provided  the  iron  is  evenly  and  finely  distributed  in 
the  clay,  and  there  is  no  excess  of  lime.  The  above  conditions  will 
be  affected  by  a reducing  atmosphere  in  burning,  or  the  presence  of 
sulphur  in  the  fire  gases. 

“4.  The  quantity  of  water.  Clays  with  a large  amount  of  chem- 
ically combined  water  sometimes  exhibit  a tendency  to  crack  in 
burning,  and  may  also  show  high  shrinkage.  If  kaolinite  is  the  only 
mineral  present  containing  chemically  combined  water,  the  percentage 
of  the  latter  will  be  approximately  one-third  that  of  the  percentage 
of  alumina,  but  if  the  clay  contains  much  limonite  or  hydrous  silica, 
the  percentage  of  chemically  combined  water  may  be  much  higher. 

“5.  Excess  of  silica.  A large  excess  of  silica  indicates  a sandy 
clay.  If  present  in  the  analysis  of  a fire  clay  it  indicates  low  refrac- 
toriness. 

“6.  The  quantity  of  organic  matter.  If  this  is  determined  sepa- 
rately, and  it  is  present  to  the  extent  of  several  per  cent,  it  would 
require  slow  burning  if  the  clay  was  dense. 

“7 . The  presence  of  several  per  cent  of  both  lime  (CaO)  and  car- 
bon dioxide  (C02)  in  the  clay  indicates  that  it  is  quite  calcareous.” 

In  order  to  determine  the  amount  of  clay  substance  in  any  of  the 
analyses  given  in  table  5,  we  may  consider  all  the  clay  minerals  to 
have  the  same  chemical  composition  as  kaolinite  (A1203,  2Si02  + 2H20) . 
The  average  composition  of  some  beds  of  kaolin  is  very  close  to  the 
theoretical  composition  of  kaolinite.  The  latter  contains  39.5  per 
cent  of  alumina,  46.5  per  cent  of  silica  and  14  per  cent  of  water. 
However,  some  beds  of  pure  kaolin  may  exhibit  less  alumina  than  is 
contained  in  kaolinite.  Such  would  be  the  case  were  the  predomi- 
nant mineral  cimolite.  On  the  other  hand  the  amount  of  alumina 


46 


CLAYS  OF  MISSISSIPPI. 


present  might  exceed  the  amount  in  kaolinite.  In  this  case  the  pre- 
dominant mineral  might  be  collyrite  or  a mixture  of  some  other  of 
the  aluminum  silicates  with  gibbsite.  The  amount  of  alumina  in 
the  first  kaolin  in  the  table  above  given  falls  a little  below  the  amount 
in  kaolinite.  To  obtain  the  percentage  of  kaolinite  from  the  ultimate 
analysis  multiply  the  quantity  of  alumina  (38.82)  by  the  factor  2.53 
and  the  result  obtained,  is  98.21  per  cent  instead  of  100  per  cent,  as 
it  would  have  been  in  the  case  of  pure  kaolinite.  Now,  if  the  amount 
of  alumina  be  multiplied  by  the  factor,  1,176,  the  amount  of  silica 
which  enters  into  combination  with  the  alumina  to  form  kaolinite 
may  be  obtained.  The  amount  of  combined  silica  is  found  to  be 
45.65  per  cent.  But  the  total  amount  of  silica  is  only  44.23,  so  that 
there  is  lacking  1.42  per  cent  of  the  silica  necessary  to  combine  with 
the  alumina  to  form  kaolinite.  Two  explanations  are  relevant. 
The  kaolin  may  be  composed  largely  of  a mineral  like  collyrite,  which 
is  higher  in  percentage  of  alumina  than  kaolinite.  Under  such  con- 
ditions there  would  be  some  free  silica  in  the  kaolin.  The  same  con- 
ditions might  be  brought  about  as  the  result  of  a mixture  of  these  two 
minerals,  collyrite  and  kaolinite.  On  the  other  hand,  this  compo- 
sition of  the  kaolin  may  be  explained  by  assuming  the  presence  of 
aluminum  oxide  (gibbsite)  with  the  aluminum  silicate  or  silicates. 

Kaolin  No.  2 of  table  5 contains  1.8  per  cent  more  alumina  than 
is  required  for  kaolinite.  It  also  contains  7.64  per  cent  less  silica 
than  the  amount  required  to  satisfy  the  alumina.  Computed  as 
kaolinite  it  contains  104.48  per  cent.  This  condition  very  strongly 
suggests  the  presence  of  gibbsite. 

The  amount  of  kaolin  in  the  first  stoneware  clay  of  table  5 is 
69.42  per  cent  and  the  amount  of  silica  is  26.86  per  cent.  The  de- 
crease in  the  amount  of  clay  substance  in  the  brick  clays  is  still  more 
marked.  The  first  in  the  table  contains  the  highest  per  cent,  31.75. 
More  than  half  of  this  clay  consists  of  uncombined  silica. 


CHEMICAL  COMPOUNDS  OF  ULTIMATE  ANALYSIS. 

Before  taking  up  a discussion  of  the  minerals  commonly  occurring 
in  clays  a short  discussion  of  the  chemical  compounds  revealed  by 
the  ultimate  analysis  will  be  given. 


CHEMICAL  PROPERTIES  OF  CLAY. 


47 


SILICA. 

The  silica,  the  percentages  of  which  are  expressed  in  the  analyses 
of  table  5,  may  be  divided,  in  respect  to  its  influence  on  the  clay, 
into  three  parts.  The  first  portion  is  that  which  is  combined  with 
the  alumina  to  form  the  kaolin  group  of  minerals.  The  second  por- 
tion is  combined  with  other  silicates,  such  as  feldspar,  hornblende 
and  mica.  The  third  portion  is  uncombined  silica  known  as  free 
silica  or  sand.  In  making  a rational  analysis  of  a clay  the  last  two 
are  rarely  separated.  The  usual  method  is  to  compute  the  amount 
of  silica  combined  to  form  kaolinite.  This  amount  called  combined 
silica  is  deducted  from  the  total  amount  of  silica  as  revealed  by  the 
ultimate  analysis  and  the  remainder  is  called  free  silica.  Reis  has 
pointed  out  that  this  method  is  not  entirely  satisfactory  from  the 
clay  workers’  standpoint,  since  some  of  the  silicates  have  very  differ- 
ent properties  from  the  quartz  and  may  exert  a very  different  influ- 
ence on  the  clay  ware.  The  effects  produced  upon  clay  by  the  pres- 
ence of  free  silica  are  to  influence  its  texture,  its  bonding  power,  its 
plasticity,  its  strength,  its  fusibility  and  other  physical  properties. 
These  effects  are  discussed  under  physical  properties  of  clay. 

» 

ALUMINA. 

The  alumina  revealed  by  the  chemical  analysis  is  derived  largely 
from  the  kaolin  in  the  clay,  but  a part  may  be  derived  from  feldspar 
and  other  aluminous  minerals.  The  amount  of  alumina  in  the  Mis- 
sissippi clays  thus  far  analyzed  ranges  from  a few  per  cent  to  41  per 
cent.  Alumina  is  the  most  refractory  substance  found  in  clays. 
Besides  contributing  to  the  refractoriness  of  the  clay  it  also  furnishes 
the  bonding  material  for  holding  together  the  inert  particles.  With- 
out its  presence  the  material  could  not  be  fashioned  into  the  desired 
form. 

Part  of  the  water  found  in  clay  is  in  chemical  union  with  alumina 
to  form  some  hydrous  silicate  like  kaolinite.  Besides  the  kaolinite 
there  are  other  minerals  which  contain  water  of  crystallization,  such, 
for  example,  as  gypsum.  The  combined  water  is  given  up  when  the 
clay  is  subjected  to  high  temperatures.  Clay  also  contains  some 
mechanically  combined  water  which  may  be  driven  off  at  the  tem- 
perature of  boiling  water.  The  amount  of  mechanically  combined 
water  is  given  in  the  ultimate  analysis  under  the  head  of  moisture. 


48 


CLAYS  OF  MISSISSIPPI. 


IRON  OXIDE. 

The  amount  of  iron  oxide  varies  in  different  clays.  It  is  generally 
least  in  kaolins  and  highest  in  brick  clays.  The  chief  source  of  iron 
oxide  in  clay  is  from  compounds  of  iron,  but  a small  amount  may  be 
derived  from  ferro-magnesian  minerals.  The  iron  compounds,  such 
as  hematite,  limonite  and  siderite,  may  exist  either  in  a finely  divided 
state  or  as  concretions  in  the  clay.  Limonite  on  the  application  of 
heat  loses  its  water  of  crystallization  and  becomes  red  oxide  of  iron. 
It  is  to  this  last  compound  that  the  red  color  of  clay  wares  is  due. 
Siderite,  the  carbonate  of  iron,  under  the  influence  of  heat  gives  up 
its  carbon  dioxide  and  becomes  ferrous  oxide.  In  the  presence  of 
oxygen  the  ferrous  iron  may  be  changed  to  the  ferric  oxide,  the  red 
oxide. 

The  sulphide  of  iron  may  also  be  reduced  to  the  ferric  oxide  under 
the  action  of  heat.  Iron  is  also  a fluxing  ingredient  of  clays.  When 
the  iron  compound  is  reduced  to  the  ferrous  state  in  the  absence  of 
oxygen  it  will  unite  with  silica  forming  a ferrous  silicate.  In  the 
presence  of  other  easily  reducible  compounds  the  ferrous  silicate 
may  act  as  a rapid  solvent.  If  there  is  plenty  of  oxygen  present  the 
ferrous  oxide  will  be  further  oxidized  to  the  more  refractory  ferric 
state. 


CALCIUM  OXIDE  (LIME). 

The  amount  of  lime  in  clays  is  generally  below  five  per  cent. 
Some  brick  clays,  however,  contain  as  much  as  twenty  per  cent. 
The  origin  of  the  lime  is  from  limestone  (calcium  carbonate)  and 
gypsum  (calcium  sulphate).  Small  amounts  of  lime  may  be  derived 
from  lime-bearing  silicates,  some  of  which  are  of  common  occurrence 
in  clays.  The  effect  produced  by  the  presence  of  lime  in  clay  will 
depend  on  the  distribution  of  the  lime  and  the  amount  present.  Lime 
concretions  may  produce  cracks  in  bricks  by  absorbing  water  and 
slaking  after  the  brick  are  burned.  In  the  presence  of  iron  these 
concretions  may  fuse  and  cause  cavities  or  slaggy  masses  in  the  brick. 
The  same  amount  of  lime  finely  divided  and  uniformly  distributed 
through  the  clay  would  have  no  detrimental  effect.  However,  since 
lime  acts  as  a flux,  its  presence  in  appreciable  quantities  tends  to 
lower  the  fusion  point  of  the  clay.  For  this  reason  vitrifying  clays 
should  not  contain  much  lime.  In  the  presence  of  a considerable 


CHEMICAL  PROPERTIES  OF  CLAYS. 


49 


quantity  of  iron  the  fluxing  action  of  lime  may  be  rapid  and  effective . 
With  only  a small  increase  of  temperature  above  incipient  fusion  the 
brick  may  be  reduced  to  a slaggy  mass.  Lime  in  considerable  quan- 
tities in  a common  brick  clay  may  also  prevent  the  development  of  a 
red  color  in  the  ware. 


MAGNESIA. 

The  source  of  magnesia  in  clay  is  from  magnesium  carbonate, 
from  magnesium  sulphate,  and  more  rarely  from  silicates  containing 
magnesium.  Dolomite  or  magnesium  limestone  is  the  chief  source. 
This  mineral  is  a calcium-magnesium  carbonate  (J  Ca,  i Mg,  C03). 
By  the  decomposition  of  pyrite  in  clays  sulphuric  acid  may  be  formed. 
The  latter  may  attack  the  magnesium  carbonate  and  form  magnesium 
sulphate.  The  sulphate  is  soluble  in  water  and  if  the  drainage  of 
the  clay  bed  is  perfect  it  will  cause  the  sulphate  to  be  carried  out  by 
circulating  waters.  If  the  sulphate  is  not  separated  from  the  clay 
it  will  be  brought  to  the  surface  of  the  ware  either  in  drying  or  burn- 
ing and  produce  efflorescence.  The  action  of  magnesia  under  heat  is 
said  to  correspond  to  that  of  lime  with  the  exception  that  at  high 
temperatures  the  magnesia  is  not  as  rapid  a fluxing  agent  as  lime. 


ALKALIES. 

The  alkalies  commonly  found  in  clays  are  potash  (K20)  and 
soda  (Na^jO).  The  per  cent  of  alkalies  contained  in  the  clays  of  Mis- 
sissippi so  far  determined  is  small.  Alkalies  in  clays  are  commonly 
derived  from  silicate  mineral,  such  as  feldspar.  The  compounds  of 
potassium  and  sodium  formed  by  the  breaking  down  of  these  com- 
plex compounds  are  sulphates,  carbonates  and  chlorides.  These 
compounds  being  soluble  are  removed  from  the  clay  under  perfect 
drainage  conditions.  Imperfectly  drained  clay  beds  may  contain 
a considerable  amount  of  these  compounds.  The  alkalies  act  as 
powerful  fluxes.  They  fuse  at  a low  temperature,  the  soluble  salts 
at  about  red  heat.  The  silicates  fuse  at  higher  temperatures.  The 
soda  silicates  fuse  at  lower  temperatures  than  the  potash  silicates 
The  feldspars  are  considered  an  aid  to  vitrification  since  they  produce 
a longer  period,  between  incipient  fusion  and  complete  vitrification 
They  are  detrimental  to  high  degree  of  refractoriness 


50 


CLAYS  OF  MISSISSIPPI. 


MINERALS  IN  CLAYS. 

The  minerals  composing  clays  may  be  classed  as  essential  and 
non-essential.  The  determination  of  essential  components  will  be 
controlled  by  the  use  for  which  the  clay  is  intended.  Iron,  for  ex- 
ample, is  an  essential  element  in  any  clay  intended  to  be  red -burning. 
On  the  other  hand  it  is  non-essential  and  detrimental  to  a clay  in- 
tended to  be  white-burning. 

The  minerals  most  commonly  found  in  clays  are  silica,  feldspar, 
mica,  iron  compounds,  such  as  hematite,  limonite,  magnetite,  siderite 
and  pyrite,  kaolinite,  calcite,  gypsum  and  hornblende.  Others 
occurring  somewhat  less  commonly  are  rutile,  glauconite,  dolomite, 
garnet  and  fluorite.  Pure  clay  is  a mixture  of  kaolinite,  meershalumi- 
nite,  halloysite,  newtonite,  cimolite,  pyrophyllite,  allophane,  colly  rite, 
montmorillonite  and  schrotterite,  silicates  of  aluminium  and  gibbsite, 
an  oxide  of  aluminium.  Rock  formed  of  one  or  more  of  these  minerals 
is  called  kaolin.  All  the  other  minerals  found  in  clay  are  termed 
impurities.  The  clay  compounds  and  the  impurities  result  from 
the  decay  of  rocks.  For  example,  granite  composed,  say,  of  feld- 
spar, mica  and  quartz,  may,  by  decomposition,  form  allophane, 
cimolite,  kaolinite,  biotite,  quartz,  magnetite,  damourite,  epidote, 
gibbsite,  muscovite,  chlorite,  diaspore,  limonite,  pyrophyllite,  new- 
tonite, hematite  and  hypersthene.  Further  alteration  may  result 
in  the  formation  of  other  compounds.  In  the  following  pages  a dis- 
cussion of  the  properties  of  some  of  the  minerals  commonly  found 
in  clays  are  given. 


KAOLINITE. 

Kaolinite  (A1203,  2Si02,  2H20)  is  an  hydrous  silicate  of  aluminum 
containing  46.5  parts  of  silicate;  39.5  parts  of  alumina  and  14  parts 
of  water.  It  is  a compact  friable  or  mealy  mineral  having  a greasy 
feel.  It  is  composed  of  microscopic  scales  or  crystals  which  in  the 
aggregate  are  white  in  color.  It  is  a soft  mineral  having  a specific 
gravity  of  2.63.  Kaolinite  results  from  the  decomposition  of  alumi- 
nous minerals,  especially  the  feldspars,  one  of  the  common  and  essen- 
tial constituents  of  granites  and  gneisses.  It  is  found  in  the  rocks 
of  all  ages  from  the  Archean  to  the  Recent.  Some  of  the  varieties  of 
kaolinite  contain  more  alumina  and  less  water  than  that  in  the  for- 


CHEMICAL  PROPERTIES  OF  CLAYS. 


51 


mula  given  above.  Beds  of  kaolinite  and  associate  minerals  are 
called  kaolin. 

In  the  decomposition  of  feldspar  to  form  kaolin,  the  potash  and 
other  bases  are  removed  by  the  action  of  meteoric  waters  containing 
carbon  dioxide.  The  residual  aluminium  silicate  takes  up  water, 
forming  an  hydrous  aluminium  silicate  or  oxide.  The  aluminous 
minerals  found  in  kaolin  are  here  given : 


TABLE  6. 

ALUMINOUS  MINERALS  FOUND  IN  KAOLIN. 


Silica 

Alumina 

Water 

Kaolinite,  H4AI2  (S^Og) 

46.05 

39.5 

14.0 

Meerschaluminite,  2HA1  (SiOO  + aq 

43.15 

41.07 

15.78 

Halloysite,  ^A^S^Og)  + aq 

43.5 

36.9 

19.6 

Newtonite,  H8Al2(Si20n) + aq 

38.5 

32.7 

28.8 

Cimolite,  H6Al<(Si03)g + aq 

63.4 

23.9 

12.7 

Pyrophyllite,  H2Al2(SiOs)4 

66.7 

28.3 

5.0 

Allophane,  Al2(Si08)5H20 

23.8 

40.5 

35.7 

Colly  rite,  Al4(Si08)9H20 

14.1 

47.8 

38.0 

Schrotterite,  Al4(SiO8)30H2O 

11.7 

53.1 

35.2 

Gibbsite,  AI2O33H2O 

65.4 

34.6 

SILICA. 

Silica  (Si02)  is  usually  the  most  abundant  mineral  in  clays.  The 
composition  of  silica  is  silicon,  46.7  parts  and  oxygen,  53.3  parts. 
It  exists  in  clay  either  free  or  combined.  Combined  with  other 
substances  it  forms  silicates.  The  amount  of  free  silica  or  quartz 
sand  occurring  in  clay  varies  from  1 to  50  per  cent.  The  total  amount 
of  silica  may  be  much  higher,  often  as  much  as  70  or  80  per  cent. 
In  such  clays  the  percentage  of  free  silica  is  very  high. 

The  size  of  the  quartz  grains  in  clays  is  extremely  variable.  They 
range  from  those  particles  large  enough  to  be  removed  by  screening 
to  those  of  exceedingly  small  microscopic  size.  The  grains  are  trans- 
parent, of  milky  translucence  or  stained  by  iron  compounds.  Quartz 
grains  which  have  not  been  transported  are  usually  angular  in  form. 
The  transported  grains  have  become  rounded  by  the  abrasion  incurred 
during  transportation.  Since  quartz  is  a very  hard  mineral,  being 
seventh  in  the  scale  of  hardness,  it  is  not  easily  broken  up,  and  because 
of  its  insolubility  it  is  not  easily  decomposed.  For  these  reasons 
it  forms  a considerable  portion  of  many  sedimentary  rocks,  and 
especially  of  the  mantle  rock. 


52 


CLAYS  OF  MISSISSIPPI. 


Quartz  alone  is  nearly  infusible,  being  fused  at  cone  35  of  the 
Seger  series,  a temperature  of  about  3,326°  F.  Although  of  such 
high  refractoriness  it  may  or  may  not  add  to  the  refractoriness  of 
a clay.  Under  certain  conditions,  as  when  the  amount  of  fluxing 
materials  is  high,  an  addition  of  quartz  may  raise  the  fusion  point, 
but  such  fusion  point  will  be  much  lower  than  the  fusion  point  of 
pure  quartz.  Quartz  added  to  clay  having  a low  per  cent  of  fluxing 
impurities  may  tend  to  lower  the  fusion  point  of  the  clay. 

The  addition  of  quartz  to  clay  will  reduce  the  shrinkage  of  the 
clay.  It  will  also  decrease  the  plasticity  but  the  amount  of  reduc- 
tion will  depend  on  the  size  of  the  quartz  grains.  Clays  containing 
a high  percentage  of  quartz  of  coarse  grain  slake  more  readily  than 
other  clays.  Clays  containing  a high  percentage  of  very  finely 
divided  quartz  slake  slowly  and  are  very  sticky  clays.  Quartz  of 
coarse  grain  adds  to  the  porosity  and  absorption  power  of  a clay. 

IRON. 

The  element  iron  may  occur  in  clays  in  a number  of  forms.  It 
may  be  present  as  a sulphide,  an  oxide,  a carbonate,  an  hydroxide, 
a sulphate  or  a silicate.  In  the  manufacture  of  some  clay  wares  a 
limited  amount  of  iron  is  desirable.  For  instance  in  red  ware  such 
as  brick  and  tiling  the  color  is  dependent  on  the  oxidation  of  the 
iron  compounds  in  the  clay.  A very  low  per  cent  of  iron  is  desirable 
in  a clay  to  be  used  in  the  manufacture  of  white  ware  of  any  kind. 
Some  clays  burn  white  notwithstanding  the  presence  of  a large  per 
cent  of  iron;  especially  is  this  true  when  a considerable  portion  of 
carbonate  of  lime  is  present.  The  iron  compounds  commonly  found 
in  clays  are  limonite,  hematite,  siderite  and  pyrite. 

Limonite. — Limonite  is  an  hydroxide  of  iron  (2Fe203,  3H20). 
It  contains  59.8  per  cent  of  iron,  25.7  per  cent  of  oxygen,  and  14.5 
per  cent  of  water.  As  an  ore  it  may  occur  in  rather  compact  crys- 
talline masses  or  as  grains  mixed  with  clay,  in  which  form  it  is  called 
yellow  ochre.  The  yellow  or  brown  color  of  many  clays  is  caused  by 
the  presence  of  appreciable  amounts  of  limonite.  Limonite  may 
occur  in  clays  as  a coating  for  the  sand  grains,  as  distributed  through 
the  clay  in  very  fine  particles,  and  as  large  lenticular  concretions. 
It  occurs  as  bog  ore  in  ponds  and  marshes,  having  been  brought  into 
the  water  in  a soluble  form  as  a sulphate  or  carbonate  or  as  some 


CHEMICAL  PROPERTIES  OF  CLAYS. 


53 


organic  salt  through  the  action  of  some  organic  adid.  It  is  precipi- 
tated by  oxidation  and  its  presence  is  revealed  by  an  iridescent 
oil-like  film  upon  the  surface  of  the  water.  Limonite  may  result 
from  the  alteration  of  other  ores,  through  the  action  of  atmospheric 
agents  and  the  presence  of  organic  acids.  Through  alteration  pro- 
cesses it  is  derived  largely  from  pyrite,  magnetite,  siderite  and  from 
silicates  containing  iron  in  the  ferrous  state.  Under  the  action  of 
carbon  dioxide  it  may  be  changed  to  siderite.  By  hydration  it  may 
be  changed  to  hematite.  It  forms  the  cementing  substance  for  many 
sandstones  and  conglomerates.  Under  the  influence  of  heat  limonite 
loses  its  water  of  crystallization  and  is  changed  to  the  red  oxide. 

Hematite. — The  red  oxide  of  iron  (Fe203)  is  also  a common  con- 
stituent of  clays.  This  compound  contains  70  per  cent  of  iron,  and 
35  per  cent  of  oxygen.  It  is  found  widely  distributed  through  the 
rocks  of  the  earth’s  crust.  It  occurs  in  the  form  of  tabular  or  rhom- 
bohedral  crystals  known  as  specular  iron.  In  hexagonal  plates  it  is 
known  as  micaceous  hematite.  In  minute  particles  it  is  found  as  a 
coating  for  sand  grains  and  is  also  disseminated  through  clays  and 
other  rocks  of  this  form.  It  sometimes  occurs  in  clays  in  concre- 
tionary masses.  These  masses  may  be  coated  with  limonite  which 
is  the  beginning  of  the  process  of  alteration.  In  beds  of  soft  rock 
it  forms  red  ochre.  The  occurrence  of  hematite  may  be  due  to  the 
alteration  of  some  other  iron  compound.  For  instance  pyrite  by 
oxidation  may  be  changed  to  hematite.  Magnetite  and  siderite  may 
also  be  altered  to  hematite.  Silicates  such  as  hornblende,  for  example, 
may  be  decomposed,  producing  hematite  as  one  product.  Hematite 
may  be  altered  to  magnetite  and  then  changed  to  siderite  by  the 
action  of  carbon  dioxide.  When  acted  on  by  sulphuretted  hydrogen 
it  may  form  pyrite,  or  by  taking  up  water  it  may  become  limonite. 

Siderite. — The  carbonate  of  iron  (FeC03)  may  occur  in  clays  as 
minute  particles  somewhat  uniformly  distributed  and  as  concre- 
tionary masses.  Siderite  contains  62.1  per  cent  of  iron  protoxide 
and  37 . 9 per  cent  of  carbon  dioxide.  It  is  found  in  many  sedimentary 
and  metamorphic  rocks.  In  shales  and  clays  it  frequently  occurs  as 
iron  stones,  especially  in  beds  associated  with  coal  deposits.  There 
are  several  varieties  based  on  composition.  Some  of  these  contain 
magnesium,  others  manganese,  and  still  others  calcium.  There  are 


54 


CLAYS  OF  MISSISSIPPI. 


also  several  varieties  as  to  form.  It  may  be  crystalline,  earthy, 
concretionary,  granular,  compact  or  oolitic. 

Where  uniformly  distributed  through  clay  it  may  give  it  a slate 
color.  By  oxidation  siderite  may  be  altered  to  hematite,  to  limonite 
or  to  magnetite.  When  present  in  considerable  quantities  in  a clay 
it  may  act  as  a flux,  causing  the  clay  to  be  fused  at  a lower  tempera- 
ture. When  heated  it  loses  its  carbon  dioxide  and  becomes  ferrous 
iron  (FeO).  The  FeO  may  unite  with  silica  and  form  a ferrous 
silicate,  Fe02,  2Si02,  which  gives  to  the  ware  a dark  green  color. 

Pyrite. — Iron  pyrites  or  fool’s  gold  is  a bright  brassy  mineral  of 
common  occurrence  in  clays  and  shales.  Its  chemical  symbol  is 
FeS2,  and  its  composition  is  iron  46.6  per  cent  and  sulphur  53.4  per 
cent.  Its  common  occurrence  in  clay  is  in  the  form  of  crystals  or 
concretionary  nodules  of  various  shapes.  Many  of  these  are  radiate 
in  structure.  In  the  presence  of  air  and  moisture  the  pyrite  (FeS2) 
alters  to  iron  sulphate,  iron  oxide  and  sulphur.  If  lime  carbonate 
is  present  the  iron  may  be  changed  to  the  hydroxide  and  the  sulphur 
trioxide  uniting  with  the  calcium  may  form  gypsum  (CaS04,  7H20). 
Thus  by  the  action  of  weathering  pyrite  may  be  removed  from  clay. 
Pyrite  may  be  changed  to  limonite  by  oxidation  and  hydration. 
By  dehydration  the  limonite  may  be  altered  to  hematite. 

When  FeS2  is  subjected  to  heat  the  Fe  becomes  oxidized  to  FeO 
and  the  sulphur  is  converted  into  S02  or  S03.  At  low  temperatures 
FeS2  loses  S and  becomes  FeS.  At  still  higher  temperatures  FeS 
is  changed  to  FeO  and  S02.  In  the  presence  of  oxygen  the  S02  may 
be  converted  into  S03. 

Marcasite. — Marcasite  is  a variety  of  iron  disulphide  having  the 
same  chemical  composition  as  pyrite.  It  is  a common  impurity  in 
lignitic  clays.  Its  color  is  pale  bronze-yellow.  In  clays  it  frequently 
occurs  in  nodules  of  radiating  crystals  called  “sulphur  balls.”  Atmos- 
pheric alteration  of  marcasite  takes  place  very  rapidly.  For  this 
reason  weathering  the  clay  is  one  of  the  most  effective  means  of 
removing  the  impurity. 

Ilmenite. — The  mineral  ilmenite,  or  menaccanite,  is  an  oxide  of 
iron  and  titanium  (TiFe03  or  (TiFe)  2 03).  It  is  an  opaque  mineral  of 
black  or  brownish-black  color.  The  normal  variety  contains  31.6 
per  cent  of  titanium,  36.8  per  cent  of  iron,  and  31.6  per  cent  of 


CHEMICAL  PROPERTIES  OF  CLAYS. 


55 


oxygen.  Since  this  mineral  is  very  refractory  and  not  easily  acted 
on  by  the  agents  of  decomposition,  it  is  a common  constituent  of 
many  residual  and  transported  deposits.  It  also  occurs  as  an  original 
constituent  of  many  igneous  rocks.  It  is  sometimes  found  in  tabular 
crystals,  plate  like  masses  or  in  grains  in  veins  of  metamorphic  rocks. 
In  many  sedimentary  rocks  it  is  present  in  small  rounded  grains. 
There  are  a number  of  varieties  of  the  mineral  distinguished  by 
varying  proportions  of  iron  and  titanium.  In  some  species  the  iron 
is  partly  replaced  by  magnesium.  Ilmenite  may  be  altered  to  leu- 
coxene  or  titanite. 


GYPSUM. 

Gypsum  (CaS042H20)  is  a hydrous  sulphate  of  calcium.  It  is 
composed  of  32.6  parts  of  lime,  and  20.9  parts  of  water,  and  46.5 
parts  of  sulphur  trioxide.  Gypsum  occurs  as  individual  crystals, 
as  crystalline  aggregates,  as  crystalline  sands,  or  in  massive  beds  of 
earthy  material.  It  may  be  precipitated  from  sea  water  under  con- 
ditions similar  to  the  deposition  of  common  salt.  It  may  also  result 
from  the  decomposition  of  pyrite  in  the  presence  of  lime  carbonate. 
The  reactions  involved  are  as  follows: 

FeS2  + 60  = FeS04  + S02  or 

FeS2  + 30  + H20  = FeS04  + H2S. 

Then  FeS04  + 20  + 7H20  = 2Fe203  :3H20  + 4H2S04. 

In  the  presence  of  lime 

CaC03  + FeS04  = CaS04  + 2H20  + FeC03  or 

H2S04  -f-  CaC03  = CaS04  T H2O  -l-  C02. 

There  are  several  varieties  of  gypsum,  the  clear,  transparent, 
crystalline  kind  is  called  selenite.  Satin  spar  is  a fibrous  variety 
with  a satin-like  lustre.  Alabaster  is  a white,  fine-grained  variety 
used  in  making  ornaments.  Gypsite  is  an  earthy  variety  occurring 
in  thick  beds  of  varying  purity.  Selenite  and  gypsite  both  occur  in 
some  of  the  clays  of  Mississippi.  Aggregates  of  selenite  crystals  are 
of  common  occurrence  in  the  clays  of  the  Jackson  group.  By  the 
decomposition  of  pyrite  in  the  Selma  chalk  the  residual  clays  of 
that  formation  contain  sufficient  gypsum  in  some  localities  to  cause 
efflorescence  on  brick  manufactured  from  the  clay.  A discussion  of 
the  effects  of  gypsum  may  be  found  under  lime  and  efflorescen  e. 


56 


CLAYS  OP  MISSISSIPPI. 


CALCITE. 

The  mineral  calcite  (CaC03)  is  composed  of  56  parts  of  lime 
(CaO)  and  44  parts  of  carbon  dioxide  (C02).  Calcite  is  the  chief 
constituent  of  limestone,  chalk  and  marble.  It  occurs  also  in  marls, 
shales  and  sandstones  in  small  grains  or  crystals.  Its  presence  in 
sedimentary  rocks  is  largely  due  to  the  accumulation  of  organic 
remains,  and  possibly  to  a less  extent  to  precipitation  from  aqueous 
solutions.  There  are  several  varieties  of  calcite.  Iceland  spar  is 
a clear  transparent  variety  having  the  power  of  double  refraction. 
Dog-tooth  spar  occurs  in  crystals,  the  form  of  which  suggests  the  name. 
Aragonite  has  the  same  chemical  composition  as  calcite  but  differs 
in  its  crystallization.  Marble,  or  crystalline  limestone,  is  composed 
largely  of  calcite.  Tufa,  travertine  and  argentite  are  composed 
principally  of  calcium  carbonate. 

When  calcite  is  heated  to  a temperature  of  1,296°  F the  C02  in 
composition  is  driven  off  and  lime  (CaO)  remains.  On  the  addition 
of  water  the  calcium  oxide  (CaO)  will  be  changed  to  calcium  hydroxide 
(Ca  (OH)  2)  with  the  evolution  of  heat. 

Nearly  all  clays  contain  at  least  small  quantities  of  calcite.  The 
presence  of  calcite  tends  to  lower  the  fusion  point  of  the  clay.  Where 
present  in  large  quantities  or  where  unevenly  distributed  it  may 
produce  cracking  or  breaking  of  the  brick  due  to  the  evolution  of  gas 
and  of  heat  in  slaking.  Unless  the  brick  are  porous  it  is  possible 
for  the  outside  of  the  brick  to  vitrify  before  all  of  the  gas  has  been 
expelled  from  the  inside.  This  causes  a swelling  or  puffing  of  the  brick. 

Many  residual  clay  deposits  have  been  formed  by  the  decom- 
position of  limestone  containing  clay.  The  lime  carbonate  is  dis- 
solved by  acidulated  meteoric  waters  and  carried  away,  while  the 
insoluble  clay  is  left  as  a residual  product.  The  amount  of  clay 
in  the  limestone  may  be  exceedingly  small,  yet  in  time  and  under 
the  proper  conditions  a bed  of  clay  of  considerable  thickness  may 
accumulate.  Such  residual  clays  have  been  formed  in  Mississippi 
by  the  dissolution  of  the  Selma  chalk  and  the  Vicksburg  limestone. 
Beds  of  clay  so  formed  usually  rest  directly  upon  the  surface  of  the 
limestone  and  often  contain,  especially  in  the  lower  portions,  nodules 
of  lime  carbonate  which  represent  the  more  insoluble  parts  of  the 
limestone.  These  are  often  a source  of  annoyance  to  the  brick 
maker.  They  interfere  with  the  cutter  and  cause  flaws  in  burning 


CHEMICAL  PROPERTIES  OF  CLAYS. 


57 


If  the  bottom  clay  is  used  it  ought  to  be  crushed  so  as  to  distribute 
the  lime  through  the  clay,  in  which  condition  it  is  harmless. 

FELDSPAR, 

The  feldspars  are  silicates  of  aluminum  containing  calcium  potas- 
sium, sodium  or  barium.  There  are  nine  principal  varieties  which 
are  divided  crystallographically  into  two  groups:  first,  the  mono- 
clinic feldspars,  orthoclase  and  hyalophane;  second,  the  triclinic 
feldspars,  microcline,  anorthoclase,  albite,  oligioclase,  andesine, 
labradorite  and  anorthite.  The  chemical  constituents  of  each  of 
these  feldspars  is  given  in  the  following  table  from  Dana’s  Mineralogy : 


TABLE  7, 

CHEMICAL  COMPOSITION  OF  FELDSPARS  (DANA). 


Silica  Alumina  Potash  Soda  Lime  Barium 


Species  Si02  AI2O3  K2O  Na20  CaO  Ba 

Orthoclase 64.7  18.4  16.9  ....  ....  .... 

Hyalophane 52.0  22.0  7.0  3.0  1.0  15.0 

Microcline 65.0  18.0  17.0  ....  ....  .... 

Anorthoclase 66.0  20.0  4.0  7.0  1.0  .... 

Albite 68.0  20.0  12.0  12.0  

Oligioclase 62.0  24.0  . . . . 9.0  5.0  .... 

Andesine 57.0  27.0  9.0  7.0  

Labradorite 53.0  30.0  ..  . 4.0  13.0  .... 

Anorthite 43.0  37.0  ...  ....  20.0  .... 


Feldspar  is  found  in  crystals  in  igneous  and  metamorphic  rocks 
and  as  grains  in  some  fragmental  rocks.  It  is  one  of  the  essential 
constituents  of  granite.  By  the  action  of  carbonate  waters  on  lime 
and  other  bases  of  feldspar  they  may  be  taken  into  solution  and 
the  feldspars  decomposed.  The  decomposition  of  the  feldspar 
results  in  the  formation  of  new  compounds.  These  new  compounds 
are  aluminous  silicates  like  kaolinite.  The  decomposition  of  pyrite 
may  produce  sulphuric  acid  which  will  aid  in  the  decomposition  of 
feldspar.  The  decomposition  of  feldspathic  rocks  is  the  original 
source  of  clay. 

Feldspar  is  commonly  associated  with  quartz  in  sand  and  is 
for  that  reason  a constituent  of  most  clays.  Like  quartz  it  serves 
to  decrease  shrinkage  in  clays,  but  since  it  fuses  at  a much  lower 
temperature  (2,192°  F)  it  may  form  a chemical  union  with  other 
substances  and  act  as  a flux. 


58 


CLAYS  OF  MISSISSIPPI. 


MICA. 

Mica  is  a polysilicate  composed  of  iron,  aluminum,  calcium, 
magnesium,  manganese  and  silica.  The  mica  group  of  minerals  con- 
tains more  than  a half  dozen  important  varieties.  They  are  all 
silicates  of  aluminum  but  vary  in  other  constituents,  viz. : potas- 
sium, lithium,  magnesium  and  iron.  There  are  two  common  varieties. 
The  first  is  a white  variety  called  muscovite.  It  has  the  following 
composition:  silica,  45.2  per  cent;  alumina,  38.5  per  cent;  potash, 
11.8  per  cent,  and  water,  4.5  per  cent.  The  second  is  a black  or 
dark  variety,  called  biotite  (Mg,  Fe)  2 Al2Si3012),  the  potassium  of 
the  former  being  partly  replaced  by  magnesium  and  iron.  One  of 
the  most  notable  physical  characters  of  mica  is  its  perfect  cleavage 
in  one  direction  permitting  it  to  be  separated  into  very  thin  plates. 
It  has  a low  degree  of  hardness. 

Mica  is  an  essential  constituent  of  many  igneous  and  metamorphic 
rocks.  When  granite  and  other  mica-bearing  rocks  are  decomposed 
the  crystals  of  mica  are  broken  up  into  small  thin  flakes.  These 
flakes  are  found  in  residual  clays,  and  on  account  of  the  low  specific 
gravity  of  the  particles,  are  transported  long  distances  and  occur  in 
most  transported  deposits. 

Under  the  action  of  weathering  mica  may  lose  its  potash  and 
take  up  water  and  soda,  manganese  or  lime.  In  brick  clays  the 
mica  grains  may  be  little  affected  by  a temperature  sufficiently 
high  to  produce  a serviceable  brick,  and  the  bright  unchanged  par- 
ticles are  sometimes  seen  upon  the  surface  of  a fresh  fracture.  At 
high  temperatures  the  mica  may  be  fused  and  it  is  therefore  detri- 
mental to  fire  clays  if  present  in  sufficient  amount.  Because  of  the 
presence  of  iron  it  is  detrimental  to  white  ware  burned  at  high  tem- 
peratures. 


HORNBLENDE. 

Hornblende  is  a silicate  belonging  to  the  amphibole  group  of 
bisilicates.  In  contains  48.8  parts  of  silica;  18.8  parts  of  iron; 
13.6  parts  of  magnesia;  10.2  parts  of  lime  and  1.1  part  of  man- 
ganese. It  may  occur  in  crystals,  fibers  or  in  a massive  form.  It  is 
an  essential  constituent  of  diorite,  and  also  occurs  in  other  rocks. 
There  are  many  varieties  of  hornblende.  Actinolite,  asbestus, 


CHEMICAL  PROPERTIES  OF  CLAYS. 


59 


nephrite  and  tremolite  are  light  colored  varieties.  Pargasite,  bera- 
maskite  and  black  hornblende  are  varieties  of  the  dark  colored  am- 
phiboles.  There  is  a great  variety  of  colors.  The  predominant 
colors  are  black,  white,  green  and  brown.  Hornblende  is  hard  and 
has  a vitreous  or  silky  lustre.  The  residual  product  of  the  decom- 
position of  hornblende  is  a clay  which  contains  a high  per  cent  of 
iron.  The  iron  compounds  which  may  be  formed  by  its  decomposi- 
tion are  limonite,  magnetite  and  hematite. 


CHAPTER  III. 


PHYSICAL  PROPERTIES  OF  CLAY. 


The  physical  properties  of  clay  which,  from  the  clay-workers’ 
standpoint,  are  most  valuable,  are  plasticity,  strength  and  refractori- 
ness. Plasticity  enables  the  worker  to  fashion  the  clay  into  the 
desired  form.  The  strength  of  the  clay  permits  the  clay  ware  to  be 
handled  during  the  drying  and  burning  processes  without  danger  of 
breakage.  The  power  of  the  clay  to  withstand  high  temperatures 
permits  it  to  be  burned  to  a compact,  hard  body  of  permanent  form. 
While  these  are,  for  the  majority  of  wares,  the  most  important  physical 
properties  there  are  other  properties  of  very  great  importance  in  the 
manufacture  of  some  wares.  In  our  investigation  of  the  clays  in- 
cluded in  this  report,  we  have  considered  the  following  properties: 


Structure.  Feel. 

Shrinkage.  Odor. 

Specific  gravity.  Taste. 

Color.  Slaking. 

Hardness.  Plasticity. 


Fusibility. 
Fineness  of  grain. 
Bonding  power. 
Tensile  strength. 
Porosity. 


STRUCTURE. 

The  structure  of  a clay  refers  to  its  mode  of  occurrence  in  the  out- 
crop or  pit.  A stratified  clay  is  one  which  occurs  in  layers.  A mas- 
sive clay  is  one  in  which  no  division  planes  are  seen.  A clay  which 
splits  readily  in  thin  leaves  or  irregular  blocks  is  said  to  be  shaly. 
If  the  leaves  are  small,  thin  and  light  the  term  chaffy  is  applied  to  it. 
A slaty  clay  is  one  in  which  the  laminae  have  undergone  a consid- 
erable degree  of  induration.  Instead  of  occurring  in  layers  some 
clays  are  found  in  concretionary  or  pebbley  masses.  Joint  clays  are 
those  which  are  separated  into  blocks  by  vertical  crevices.  This 
structure  is  an  aid  to  the  mining  of  many  clays.  These  various 
structures  in  clay  are  the  result  of  deposition,  compression,  and 
induration.  In  the  process  of  weathering  they  are  obliterated,  and 
the  rapidity  of  such  weathering  action  is  often  dependent  on  the 


62 


CLAYS  OF  MISSISSIPPI. 


structure  of  the  clfcy . The  speed  with  which  a mineral  producing 
soluble  salts  can  be  removed  by  weathering  will  depend  upon  the 
structure  of  the  clay.  In  order  that  clay  may  be  used  in  the  forma- 
tion of  clay  wares,  it  must  be  reduced  to  a structureless  mass.  For 
this  purpose  it  is  necessary  to  employ  disintegrating  or  pulverizing 
machinery.  The  expense  of  this  process  will  be  determined  by  the 
degree  of  induration  which  has  taken  place  in  the  clay  structure. 

SHRINKAGE. 

The  amount  which  a clay  contracts  in  passing  from  a plastic  con- 
dition to  that  of  a rigid  solid  is  termed  its  shrinkage.  The  water 
which  is  added  to  the  clay  in  order  to  render  it  plastic  is  lost  by  evap- 
oration, causing  a loss  of  volume.  The  loss  of  volume  or  shrinkage 
varies  greatly  in  different  clays  and  with  different  conditions  of  the 
same  clay.  Water  added  in  excess  of  the  amount  required  for  plas- 
ticity will  cause  a greater  loss  of  volume,  as  will  also  the  presence  of 
air  bodies  in  the  clay.  Considerable  water  may  exist  in  the  clay 
without  increasing  the  volume,  but  whenever  the  particles  of  clay 
are  completely  enveloped  in  water,  the  volume  and  the  plasticity 
will  be  increased.  Water  absorbed  by  a clay  exists  either  inter- 
stitial, i.  e.,  in  the  pores,  or  interparticle,  i.  e.,  not  occupying  the 
pores  but  causing  a separation  of  the  particles.  It  is  the  latter 
which  increases  the  volume  of  a clay.  Clays  of  coarse  grain  have 
large  interstices  and  contain  large  quantities  of  interstitial  water, 
but  less  interparticle  water  than  clays  of  finer  grain;  therefore,  the 
fine  grain  clay  shrinks  more  than  the  coarse  grain. 

j 

AIR  SHRINKAGE. 

The  amount  of  contraction  which  a clay  undergoes  when  drying 
in  the  air  is  called  its  air  shrinkage.  The  amount  of  air  shrinkage 
depends  mainly  on  two  factors;  first,  the  amount  of  water  absorbed; 
second,  the  size  of  the  grain. 

A number  of  methods  of  preventing  excessive  shrinkage  is 
employed.  The  method  more  generally  in  use  is  that  of  mixing  a 
sandy  clay  with  the  more  plastic  clay.  Under  ordinary  conditions 
this  is  the  most  economical  method.  In  the  greater  part  of  the  sur- 
face clay  deposits  of  this  State  the  upper  portion  of  the  clay  bed 
contains  available  sandy  clay.  The  plastic,  residual  clays  are  some- 
times diluted  with  the  underlying  non-plastic  loess.  Pure  sand  and 
crushed  brick  are  sometimes  used  to  decrease  shrinkage  and  produce 


Plate  III. 


A.  BRICKETTES  FOR  TENSILE  STRENGTH  TEST. 


B.  ELECTRIC  FURNACE  FOR  TESTING  CLAYS. 


PHYSICAL  PROPERTIES  OF  CLAYS. 


63 


more  rapid  drying.  Crushed  coal  cinders  are  successfully  employed 
in  some  plants.  Chopped  straw,  sawdust,  lignite  and  coal  dust  may 
also  be  employed.  The  effects  produced  by  the  use  of  non-plastic 
materials  is  to  decrease  its  plasticity  and  its  bonding  power.  On  the 
other  hand,  they  may  cause  the  clay  to  mold  without  lamination, 
increase  the  speed  of  drying  and  burning,  and  prevent  cracking  and 
checking.  The  use  of  combustible  substances  leaves  the  brick  more 
porous  than  the  mineral  substances.  From  a fuel  standpoint  their 
use  is  economical,  since  the  clay  particles  are  brought  in  immediate 
contact  with  the  clay.  The  danger  of  swollen  ware  will  be  referred 
to  under  the  subject  of  “Causes  of  Swollen  Brick.”  Unless  a large 
amount  of  oxygen  is  supplied  to  the  kiln  in  the  draft  the  organic 
matter  in  the  clay  may  rob  the  iron  compounds  of  their  oxygen  and 
cause  a pale  yellow  color  in  red  burning  clays.  The  use  of  cinders 
is  free  from  some  of  these  objections.  They  decrease  shrinkage, 
plasticity,  bonding  power,  and  tensile  strength  in  the  raw  clay. 
They  cause  the  clay  to  dry  more  rapidly  and  to  burn  in  less  time. 
They  do  not  increase  the  porosity  of  the  clay  as  do  the  combustible 
substances  and  the  tensile  strength  of  the  burned  clay  is  not  dimin- 
ished as  much.  The  table  below  shows  the  effect  of  coal  and  cinder 
dilution  on  the  tensile  strength  of  raw  and  burned  clays. 

TABLE  8. 

EFFECT  OF  COAL  AND  CINDER  DILUTION  ON  THE  TENSILE  STRENGTH  OF  RAW 

AND  BURNED  CLAYS. 


Locality 

Starkville  brick  clay 

Starkville  brick  clay  and  10%  coal . . 
Starkville  brick  clay  and  10%  cinders 

Amory  brick  clay 

Amory  brick  clay  and  10%  coal 

Amory  brick  clay  and  10%  cinders. . . 

Morton  clay 

Morton  clay  and  10%  coal 

Morton  clay  and  10%  cinders 

Wahalak  clay 

Wahalak  clay  and  10%  coal 

Wahalak  clay  and  10%  cinders 


Tensile  strength  in  pounds  per  square  inch. 


Raw  clay 

Burned  clay 

133 

146 

119 

150 

75 

153 

100 

220 

140 

263 

176 

300 

81 

131 

130 

192 

100 

235 

112 

170 

77 

222 

74 

150 

The  first  clay  is  residual  Selma,  the  second  is  Tombigbee  second 
bottom,  the  third  is  a residual  Jackson  and  the  fourth  belongs  to  the 
Porter’s  Creek  (Flatwoods)  formation.  These  clays  are  all  highly 


64 


CLAYS^OF  MISSISSIPPI. 

plastic  and  the  shrinkage  is  excessive.  The  non-plastic  material 
was  added  to  decrease  shrinkage  and  to  increase  the  speed  of  drying 
and  burning.  All  of  these  objects  were  attained,  and,  as  the  experi- 
ments seem  to  prove,  not  greatly  at  the  expense  of  the  strength  of 
the  ware  when  the  ware  is  compared  with  that  of  the  original  clay. 
The  brickettes  were  given  a medium  burn. 

FIRE  SHRINKAGE. 

The  loss  of  volume  which  the  clay  sustains  in  passing  from  the 
raw  to  the  burned  condition  is  termed  its  fire  shrinkage.  The  loss 
of  the  chemically  combined  water  in  clay  and  the  combination  of 
the  organic  matter  causes  an  increase  in  the  porosity  of  the  clay. 
When  the  temperature  is  carried  to  the  point  of  vitrification  the  pore 
space  and  the  natural  pores  are  closed.  A loss  of  volume  results. 
Sandy  clays  not  burned  to  vitrification  may  not  exhibit  any  fire 
shrinkage.  Some  clays  containing  a high  per  cent  of  organic  matter 
when  subjected  to  a rapidly  increasing  temperature  may  become 
viscous  on  the  outside,  thus  preventing  the  escape  of  hydrocarbons 
formed  from  the  distillation  of  the  organic  matter  and  causing  the 
brick  to  slightly  increase  in  volume. 

The  following  table  shows  the  air  shrinkage  and  the  fire  shrink- 
age of  some  Mississippi  brick  clays  burned  at  a good  red  heat  and 
forming  a medium  burn. 

TABLE  9. 

SHRINKAGE  IN  MISSISSIPPI  CLAYS. 


Formation 

locality 

Air 

Shrinkage 

Fire 

Shrinkage 

Brown  loam  (middle) 

3i% 

0 % 

•i  <• 

3i% 

0 % 

“ “ (bottom) 

. .Sardis 

6f  % 

2 % 

“ “ 

3i% 

1 % 

Yazoo  alluvium  (buckshot) 

....  10  % 

2 % 

“ ««  *« 

Moorhead 

15  % 

3 % 
2h% 

.. 

, . . Greenville 

. . . . 10  % 

“ (candy) 

5 % 

1 % 

“ “ 

4 % 

2f% 

« “ “ 

. . Minter  City 

5 % 

1 % 
2 % 

Porter’s  Creek  (Flatwoods) 

. . . . 10  % 

«« 

...  10  % 

2 % 

“ “ 

. .Starkville 

...  10  % 

1 % 

Lafayette 

. . Canton 

8 % 

0 % 

“ 

. .Hernando 

5 % 

1 % 

Jackson 

. .Canton 

...  10  % 

1 % 

“ 

. .Morton 

...  10  % 

1 % 

“ 

. .Barnett 

...  10  % 

2 % 

Buhrstone 

. . Vaiden. 

...  10  % 

0 % 

Selma  residual 

. .Starkville 

5 % 

1 % 

“ “ 

. .West  Point 

4 % 

0 % 

“ “ 

. .Booneville 

5 % 

1 % 

“ “ 

. .Verona 

5 % 

1 % 

PHYSICAL  PROPERTIES  OF  CLAYS.  65 

SPECIFIC  GRAVITY* 

The  specific  gravity  of  a rock  is  its  weight  compared  with  the 
weight  of  an  equal  volume  of  distilled  water  at  60°F.  The  specific 
gravity  of  a substance  is  obtained  by  weighing  it  in  air  and  by  weigh- 
ing it  in  water  and  then  dividing  its  weight  in  air  by  its  loss  of 
weight  in  water.  The  specific  gravity  of  clays  usually  varies  from 
1.50%to  2.50,  but  there  are  some  clays  whose  specific  gravity  is  lower 
and  others  whose  specific  gravity  is  higher  than  these  limits.  Pure 
kaolin  has  a specific  gravity  of  from  2.4  to  2.6.  Pure  quartz  sand 
has  a specific  gravity  of  from  2.5  to  2.8.  Where  clay  is  largely  a 
mixture  of  varying  proportions  of  these  two  minerals,  its  specific 
gravity  is  not  far  from  2.5.  Clays  containing  in  addition  to  these 
minerals  mica  and  limonite  are  slightly  heavier.  The  presence  of 
magnetite,  however,  may  greatly  increase  the  specific  gravity,  while 
on  the  other  hand  organic  matter  may  decrease  it. 

Methods  of  determining  specific  gravity  are  not  uniform  and 
different  methods  may  produce  different  results  in  the  same  clay. 
By  the  use  of  the  pycnometer  the  specific  gravity  of  the  individual 
grains  is  determined  and  taken  as  the  specific  gravity  of  the  clay. 
By  another  method  the  specific  gravity  of  lumps  of  clay  whic^i  have 
been  coated  with  paraffin  is  determined.  This  method  considers 
the  pore  space  a part  of  the  clay.  The  specific  gravity  of  any  clay 
is  less  by  the  latter  method. 

COLOR. 

The  color  of  clays  is  an  exceedingly  variable  property.  Many 
shades  and  tints  are  represented.  The  color  may  be  due  either  to 
the  presence  of  organic  matter  or  to  the  presence  of  iron  and  man- 
ganese compound.  Shades  of  red,  buff  or  brown  are  generally  due 
to  the  presence  of  iron  oxides.  Blue  and  dark  colors  are  sometimes 
caused  by  the  presence  of  iron  carbonate  or  of  organic  matter.  White 
clays  are  devoid  of  susceptible  coloring  matter,  but  some  white  clays 
have  color  developed  by  burning. 

By  the  color  of  the  raw  clay  it  is  not  possible  to  predict  the  color 
of  the  burned  product  unless  the  nature  of  the  coloring  matter  and 
its  amount  are  known.  Some  white  clays  contain  enough  iron  to 
produce  a dark  shade  when  burned  in  an  oxidizing  flame.  Titanium 

may  produce  a purple  tint  when  the  clay  is  burned  at  a high  tempera- 
8 


66 


CLAYS  OF  MISSISSIPPI. 


ture.  Some  black  clays  are  found  to  be  very  white  after  burning. 
The  dark  coloring  matter  in  many  clays  is  organic  matter  which  is 
burned  out,  leaving  the  product  white.  Some  yellow  or  red  clays 
containing  an  excess  of  iron  may  burn  to  an  iron  black. 

The  color  to  which  a clay  will  burn  often  has  an  important  bearing 
on  its  value.  A clay  which  may  be  of  high  value  as  a stoneware  clay, 
for  instance,  may  be  entirely  useless  as  a white  ware  clay,  because  of 
the  presence  of  coloring  matter  which  would  develop  dark  shades  or 
splotches  during  burning.  Even  in  common  brick  clays  the  color  is 
of  importance.  The  nearly  colorless  Milwaukee  brick  clay  is  of 
greater  commercial  value  than  the  more  common  red  or  yellow  burn- 
ing clays.  The  most  satisfactory  test  to  determine  the  color  of  the 
burned  product  is  to  subject  a sample  of  the  clay  to  the  same  conditions 
of  temperature  to  which  the  proposed  ware  is  to  be  subjected.  The 
shades  of  the  burned  clay  are  almost  as  variable  as  the  natural  clay. 

The  oxidation  of  iron  compounds  in  the  clay  produces  light  reds, 
cherry  reds,  dark  reds,  chocolates  and  iron  blacks,  the  latter  being 
produced  by  an  excessive  amount  of  iron.  Clays  may  contain  a 
considerable  quantity  of  iron  and  still  be  white  or  yellow.  Vitrified 
wares  contain  iron  silicates  which  may  give  a green,  brown  or  black 
color.  Spots  on  white,  yellow  or  red  wares  are  produced  by  sprink- 
ling the  surface  of  the  clay  product  with  iron  or  manganese  particles. 
The  oxidation  or  reduction  of  these  particles  produce  black,  br^wn 
or  red  specks  on  the  wares. 


HARDNESS. 

The  property  by  virtue  of  which  one  mineral  is  able  to  scratch 
another  mineral  is  called  hardness.  Clays  are  soft  rocks.  They  usually 
range  in  the  scale  of  hardness  from  one  to  three.  The  maximum 
degree  of  hardness  is  represented  in  the  flint  clays  while  the  minimum 
degree  is  attained  in  the  ( halk-like  kaolin.  This  property  refers  to 
the  ease  with  which  the  rock  may  be  scratched.  The  individual 
particles  in  a clay  may  be  a great  deal  harder  than  the  rock.  For 
instance,  the  quartz  would  have  a hardness  of  seven,  while  the  feld 
spar  would  have  a hardness  of  six.  Kaolinite  has  a hardness  varying 
from  1 to  2.5. 

Burnt  clay  has  a much  higher  degree  of  hardness  than  raw  clay. 
Vitrified  clay  products  reach  a hardness  equal  to  that  of  quartz, 


PHYSICAL  PROPERTIES  OF  CLAYS. 


67 


which  will  readily  scratch  glass.  Hardness  is  a property  very  essen- 
tial in  all  clay  wares  which  are  to  be  subjected  to  abrasion,  as  are 
paving  brick;  or  to  compression,  as  are  building  brick;  or  to  chemical 
action,  as  are  sewer  pipe. 

FEEL. 

Clay  containing  particles  of  sand  are  harsh  or  gritty  to  the  touch. 
The  grit  in  some  clays  may  be  detected  by  rubbing  the  clay  between 
the  fingers.  In  other  clays  the  grit  can  only  be  detected  by  moisten- 
ing the  clay  between  the  teeth.  Clays  having  a large  percentage  of 
clay  base  are  smooth  to  the  touch.  Kaolin  is  somewhat  like  talc  or 
soapstone  to  the  touch.  It  is  a very  common  practice  for  people  to 
refer  to  an  unctuous  clay  or  shale  as  a soapstone.  These  clays  may 
be  shaved  with  a knife  to  a perfectly  smooth  surface,  while  a clay 
containing  grit  will  have  minute  pits  upon  its  surface  where  the  blade 
of  the  knife  has  pulled  out  the  sand  grains.  The  moistened  surface 
of  the  unctuous  clay  feels  greasy  or  soapy.  As  a general  rule  the 
gritty  clays  are  the  least  plastic  and  are  called  “lean”  or  “short” 
clays,  while  the  more  unctuous  clays  are  the  more  plastic  and  are 
called  “fat”  clays. 

ODOR. 

The  odor  which  emanates  from  the  moistened  surface  cf  clay  is 
distinct  and  characteristic.  A very  similar  odor  is  given  by  the 
surface  of  some  minerals  when  they  are  rubbed,  and  they  are  said  to 
have  an  argillaceous  cdor.  Some  clays  containing  decaying  organic 
matter  have  a fetid  odor.  Some  very  silicicus  clays  contain  such  a 
small  amount  of  clay  substance  that  the  argillaceous  cdcr  is  not  dis- 
tinct. Some  clays  containing  a very  high  per  cent  of  clay  substance 
do  not  give  off  an  argillaceous  odor.  Therefore,  this  property  cannot 
be  counted  a safe  guide  to  the  amount  of  clay  substance. 

TASTE. 

The  presence  of  certain  soluble  salts  in  clay  may  be  detected  by 
tasting  the  clay.  Common  salt,  alum  and  ferrous  sulphate  are  not 
infreqeuntly  detected  in  this  way.  Clay  prospectors  sometimes  place 
clay  between  the  teeth  in  order  to  determine  its  proportion  of  sandy 
matter.  They  also  employ  this  method  to  determine  the  texture 
and  degree  of  plasticity. 

SLAKING. 

The  crumbling  of  a clay  under  the  action  of  water  is  termed 
slaking.  When  a clay  slakes  it  breaks  up  into  small  fragments. 


CLAYS  OF  MISSISSIPPI. 


68 


Slaking  takes  place  wherever  an  air -dried  clay  surface  is  exposed  to 
the  action  * f water.  The  size  of  clay  fragments  or  grains  into  which 
the  clay  mass  is  separated  is  fairly  uniform  for  the  same  clay,  but 
varies  greatly  in  different  clays.  The  shape  of  the  particles  is  variable. 
Some  are  flat,  some  cubical,  others  irregular.  As  the  particles  of 
the  clay  separate  they  absorb  water  and  increase  in  size. 

The  speed  of  slaking  varies  in  different  clays.  Clays  of  marked 
density,  such  as  shale  and  flint  clays,  slake  very  slowly  while  the 
leaner  surface  clays  slake  very  rapidly.  Wet  or  puddled  clays  do 
not  slake  as  rapidly  as  air-dried  clay  to  which  water  is  suddenly 
applied.  The  speed  of  slaking  is  determined  by  taking  samples  of 
natural  clays  of  equal  size  and  placing  them  in  wrater  and  by  observing 
the  time  elapsing  until  they  are  completely  crumbled.  A cube  one 
inch  in  diameter  of  a lean  loess  clay  from  Grenada,  Grenada  County, 
was  completely  separated  in  less  than  ten  minutes,  while  a shale  from 
Mingo,  Tishomingo  County,  was  little  affected  after  remaining  in 
water  one  week. 

Clays  having  a high  slaking  speed  are  usually  very  lean  or  sandy. 
The  loess  clays  and  the  more  silicious  alluvial  clays  are  of  this  type. 
The  Porter’s  Creek  (Flatwoods)  and  the  “buckshot”  alluvial  clays 
have  a slow  slaking  speed.  The  Tuscaloosa  clays  and  the  Wilcox 
(La  Grange)  clays  slake  rapidly.  Clays  used  for  any  purpose  requir- 
ing molding  without  grinding  ought  to  possess  at  least  a moderate 
slaking  speed.  A clay  possessing  a low  slaking  speed  causes  less  cf 
time  when  tempered  either  in  the  wet  pan  or  the  pug  mill.  Such  clays 
must  be  pulverized  in  the  disintegrator  and  the  granulator  before 
they  can  be  tempered  and  molded.  The  bottom  clay  in  mest  cf  the 
surface  deposits  of  the  State  has  a slow  slaking  speed,  and  a ten- 
dency to  form  clods,  which  cannot  be  entirely  removed  in  the  short 
pug  mills  in  use.  For  this  reason  the  more  successful  brick  plants 
are  employing  the  use  of  one  or  more  forms  of  pulverizers. 

PLASTICITY. 

A clay  is  plastic  when  it  can  be  easily  fashioned  by  the  hands 
into  a desired  form,  and  when  it  has  the  property  of  retaining  that 
form  when  so  fashioned.  Dry  clay  of  any  form  is  devoid  of  plas- 
ticity. In  order  that  a clay  may  become  plastic,  it  must  be  mixed 
with  a certain  amount  of  water.  The  quantity  of  water  necessary 


Plate  IV 


STIFF-MUD  BRICK  MACHINE  OF  THE  AUGER  TYPE. 


PHYSICAL  PROPERTIES  OF  CLAYS. 


69 


to  plasticity  varies  with  the  physical  condition  of  the  clay.  Not  all 
clays  become  plastic  when  mixed  with  water.  This  fact  leads  to  the 
conclusion  that  some  clays  possess  an  inherent  property  which  renders 
them  plastic  by  the  addition  of  a certain  proportion  of  water.  Experi- 
ence demonstrates  that  the  plasticity  of  a clay  is  not  due  to  a single 
condition,  but  that  it  results  from  the  combined  action  of  a group 
of  factors.  Some  of  these  factors  are  well  known,  such,  for  instance, 
as  the  presence  of  uncombined  water.  There  are  others,  however 
the  nature  of  which  is  little  known. 


FACTORS  OF  PLASTICITY. 

The  factors  which  seem  to  have  the  greatest  influence  upon  the 
plasticity  of  clay  are: 

1 . Fineness  of  Grain. — Some  clays  which  are  non-plastic  when  taken 
from  the  pit,  slaked  and  mixed  with  water,  may  be  made  plastic  by 
reducing  them  to  minute  particles  before  mixing  with  water.  In  a 
similar  way  the  plasticity  of  all  clays  may  be  increased.  Fineness  of 
grain  is  not  the  only  essential  factor,  however.  Some  clays  of  exceedingly 
fine  grain  may  possess  but  little  plasticity.  Experiments  have  been 
performed  with  glass,  quartz,  mica,  limestone  and  talc  to  determine 
whether  mere  fineness  of  grain  was  sufficient  to  account  for  plasticity. 
The  results  were  negative  in  each  case.  These  substances  could  not  be 
brought  to  a condition  which  would  permit  them  to  be  molded  into 
forms  that  would  retain  their  shape. 

2.  The  Presence  of  Uncombined  Water. — As  has  been  stated  above, 
a dry  clay  is  not  at  all  plastic  but  it  may  become  highly  plastic  when 
mixed  with  a certain  amount  of  water.  The  water  acts  as  a lubri- 
cant between  the  clay  particles  and  thereby  permits  greater  freedom 
of  movement.  At  the  same  time  the  surface  tension  of  the  water 
holds  the  particles  and  permits  a movement  of  the  clay  particles  with- 
out interrupting  the  continuity  of  the  clay  mass.  An  effect  to  be 
compared  to  the  stretch  of  a rubber. 

3.  The  Presence  of  Combined  Water,  Bacteria  or  Some  Substance 
or  Condition  Which  May  be  Destroyed  by  Calcining. — When  a plastic 
clay  has  been  subjected  to  a temperature  sufficient  to  drive  off  its 
combined  water  it  is  rendered  non-plastic.  Nor  can  its  plasticity  be 


70 


CLAYS  OF  MISSISSIPPI. 


restored  by  reducing  it  to  fine  powder  and  mixing  it  with  water. 
This  fact  proves  that  some  important  factor  of  plasticity  has  been 
destroyed  by  heating  the  clay.  It  has  been  found  by  practical  tests 
that  the  plasticity  of  a clay  is  increased  by  “ageing,”  “mellowing,” 
or  “curing”  the  clay.  These  are  terms  applied  to  the  same  process 
which  consists  in  storing  the  clay  for  a period  of  time  in  a damp  cool 
place.  For  instance  clay  which  has  been  stored  for  a time  in  a damp 
cellar  is  found  to  have  an  increased  plasticity.  This  increase  is 
thought  to  be  due  to  the  action  of  bacteria  working  in  the  clay.  It 
is  found  also  that  the  plasticity  of  a clay  may  be  increased  by  the 
addition  of  tannin  or  the  addition  of  an  emulsion  of  straw. 

4.  The  Presence  of  Flat  and  Interlocking  Crystals  * — The  presence 
of  flat  crystals  aid  by  increasing  the  amount  of  surface  tension  of  the 
hydroscopic  moisture.  This  does  not  apply  to  the  large  macroscopic 
plates  of  mica  which  sometimes  occur  in  clay  in  such  abundance  as  to 
be  detrimental  to  its  plasticity.  Crystals  which  are  curved  or  have 
angles  or  serrated  edges  present  interlocking  surfaces  which  increase 
the  tensile  strength  of  the  clay  and  may  also  increase  the  plasticity. 

A number  of  methods  of  determining  the  degree  of  plasticity  of 
a clay  has  been  suggested,  but  none  are  entirely  satisfactory. 
The  old  method  of  determination  by  hand  moulding  is  still  the  most 
reliable. 

FUSIBILITY. 

Matter  may  exist  in  three  states,  viz.,  solid,  liquid  or  gas.  Water, 
for  example,  at  ordinary  temperatures  exists  as  a liquid.  At  slightly 
lower  temperatures,  it  becomes  a s^  lid . At  higher  temperatures, 
it  assumes  the  furm  of  a gas.  When  in  the  solid  state  if  heat  be 
applied  the  solid  becomes  a liquid.  This  transformation  is  termed 
fusion.  The  temperature  at  which  the  solid  becomes  liquid  is  called 
the  fusion  point  of  the  substance.  The  fusion  point  of  any  substance 
is  controlled  by  pressure.  All  solids,  having  a definite  chemical 
composition  under  a fixed  pressure,  fuse  at  a certain  definite  tem- 
perature. This  definite  temperature  is  called  the  fusion  point. 

Ordinary  clays,  however,  are  not  of  definite  chemical  composition. 
Clays  are  composed  of  a variety  of  minerals,  each  having  a definite 
chemical  composition  and  a definite  point  of  fusion.  When  heat^is 


♦See  Mo.  Geol.  Survey,  Vol.  XI,  p.  101* 


Plate 


t 


EITHER-SIDE  ROCKER  DUMP  CAR. 


PHYSICAL  PROPERTIES  OF  CLAYS. 


71 


applied  to  this  aggregate  of  minerals,  the  one  having  the  lowest 
fusion  point  will  be  the  first  to  fuse.  The  molten  matter  which  is 
free  to  combine  may  unite  with  some  other  mineral  or  minerals  in 
the  clay  and  form  a compound  having  a lower  fusion  point  than  the 
original  compounds.  These  when  molten  may  act  as  fluxes  for  other 
minerals  and  the  whole  clay  be  reduced  to  a molten  condition  at  a 
temperature  considerably  lower  than  the  fusion  point  of  its  most 
refractory  constituents.  The  change  from  the  solid  to  the  liquid 
involves  the  consumption  of  heat  in  raising  the  temperature  of  the 
solid  to  the  fusion  point.  Some  heat  is  consumed  as  latent  heat, 
some  in  chemical  reactions. 

Three  stages  are  usually  recognized  in  the  fusion  of  a clay,  namely: 
incipient  fusion,  vitrification  and  viscosity  (Wheeler).  In  the  first 
stage  the  more  fusible  particles  become  soft  and  upon  cooling  cement 
together  the  more  refractory  particles,  forming  a hard  mass.  In  the 
second  stage  the  clay  particles  become  soft  enough  to  close  up  all  of 
the  pore  spaces  so  that  further  shrinkage  is  impossible.  When  the 
mass  becomes  cool,  it  forms  a dense  solid  body  which  is  glassy  on  a 
fractured  surface.  In  the  third  stage,  the  clay  body  becomes  so  soft 
as  to  no  longer  retain  its  shape,  and  flows. 

The  fusibility  of  a clay  depends  on  a number  of  factors,  but  the 
most  important  ones  are  the  amount  and  kinds  of  fluxing  impurities 
in  the  clay  and  the  fineness  of  the  grain. 

For  determining  the  temperature  of  kilns  and  furnaces  and  the 
fusion  points  of  different  substances,  pyrometers  of  various  kinds 
are  used.  One  of  these  is  the  thermo-electric  pyrometer.  It  consists 
of  a thermo-electric  couple  which  generates  an  electric  current  when 
heated.  The  intensity  of  the  current  increases  with  the  tempera- 
ture. The  current  is  measured  by  means  of  a galvanometer.  The 
thermopile  consists  of  a platinum  wire,  and  a wire  composed  of  90 
per  cent  platinum  and  10  per  cent  of  rhodium.  These  wires,  protected 
by  clay  tubes,  are  inserted  into  the  furnace  usually  through  a small 
opening  in  the  door. 

The  fusibility  of  clays  is  also  determined  by  the  use  of  Seger  cones. 
These  cones  are  made  of  a mixture  of  substances  of  known  fusibility. 
The  cones,  together  with  the  clay  to  be  tested,  are  placed  in  a furnace 
or  oven  and  the  heat  applied.  The  cone  which  loses  its  shape  at 
the  moment  the  clay  does  determines  the  fusion  point  of  the  clay. 

The  cones  are  arranged  in  a series  as  given  in  the  following  table: 


72 


CLAYS  OF  MISSISSIPPI 


TABLE  10. 

COMPOSITION  AND  FUSING  POINTS  OF  SEGER  CONES. 


No.  of 
Cone 


022 

021 

020 

019 

018 

017 

016 

Q15 

014 

013 

012 

011 

010 

09 

08 

07 

06 

05 

04 

03 

02 

01 

1 

2 

3 

4 

5 


r°.i 

\0.< 


{ 

{«:; 
r°j 
lo.i 

/ 0.5 
1 0.5 
I 0.5 
\ 0.5 
f 0.5  Ns 
1 0.5  Pt 


lo.f 


5 NAjO.... 

5 P206 

0.5  Na20 

0.5  PbO 

0.5  Na20 

0.5  PbO 

5 Na20 

5 PbO 

5 Na20 

5 PbO 

5 Na20 

5 PbO 

Na20 

PbO 

Na20 

PbO 

J 0.5  NatO 

[0.5  PbO 

J 0.5  Na20 

[ 0.5  PbO 

5 Na20 

5 PbO 

I 0.5  Na20 

1 0.5  PbO 

j 0.3  K20 0. 

[0.7  CaO . 0 . 

10.3  K20 0. 

1 0.7  CaO 0. 

j 0.3  K20 0. 

[0.7  CaO 0. 

I 0.3  KjO 0. 

[0.7  CaO 0. 

I 0.3  K20 0. 

1 0.7  CaO 0. 

I 0.3  K20 0. 

\ 0.7  CaO 0. 

1 0.3  K20 0. 

1 0.7  CaO 0. 

0.3  K20 0. 

0.7  CaO 0. 

0.3  K20 0. 

0 . 7 CaO 0 . 

0.3  K20 0. 

0.7  CaO 0. 

0.3  K20 0. 

0.7  CaO 0. 

0.3  K20 0. 

0.7  CaO 0. 

0.3  K20 0. 

0.7  CaO 0. 

0.3  K20 

0.7  CaO 

3 K20 

7 CaO 


Composition 


1 AljOj. 

2 A1203 . 

3 A1203 . 
4-AloOj. 
5 A12Os  . 


f 2.0 
11  0 


I 2.8  S 
[ 1 .0  B 


0 . 55  A1203 . 


0.6  A1203. 


65  A1203 . 


I 3.3  S 
[ 1.0  E 


0.7  A1203. 


75  A1203 . 


0.8  A1203 


{S: 


2 Fe203 . 

3 A1203.. 

2 Fe203 . 

3 A1203 . . 

2 Fe203 . 

3 A12Os  . . 

2 Fe203 . 

3 A12Os  . . 

2 Fe203 . 

3 A1203.. 

2 Fe203 . 

3 A1203 . . 

2 Fe203 . 

3 A1203 . . 

2 Fe2Oj . 

3 A1203 . . 

2 Fe203 . . 

3 A1203.. 

2 Fe203 . . 

3 A1203.. 

2 Fe203 . . 

3 A1203 . . 
1 Fe203  , . 

4 A1203 . . 

05  Fe203. 
45  A1203 . 

0.5  A1203.. 


Si02 . 
BO.. 
2.2  Si02  . 

1.0  BO... 

2.4  Si02 . 
1.0BO... 
2.6  Si02 . 

1 .0  BO. . . 
2.8  Si02.. 
BO... 

3 . 0 Si02  . 

1 .0  BO  . 

3 . 1 Si02 . . 
1.0  BO... 

3 . 2 Si02  . . 
1 .0  BO... 

Si02 . . 
BO... 

3.4  Si02. 

1 .0  BO... 

3.5  Si02 . . 
1.0  BO... 

Si02 . . 
BO... 
3.50  Si02 
0.50  BO.. 
3.55  Si02 
0.45  BO.. 
3 . 60  Si02 . 
0.40  BO.. 
3.65  Si02. 
0.35  BO.. 
3.70  Si02 . 
0.30  BO.. 
3.75  Si02 . 
0.25  BO.. 
3.80  Si02. 
0.20  BO.. 
3.85  Si02. 
0.15  BO.. 
3.90  Si02 . 
0.10  BO.. 
3.95  Si02 . 
0.05  BO.. 


r 3.6 
1 1 -0 


}° 


5 A1203  . 


4.0  Si02 . 
4.0  Si02 . 
4.0  Si02 . 

4.0  Si02 . 

5.0  Si02 . 


Fusing  Point 
°F  7 °C~ 


1.094 

1,148 

1,202 

1,256 

1,310 

1,364 

1,418 

1,472 

1,526 

1,580 

1,634 

1,688 

1,742 

1,778 

1,814 

1,850 

1,886 

1,922 

1,958 

1,994 

2,030 

2,066 

2,102 

2,138 

2,174 

2,210 

2,246 


590 
620 
650 
680 
710 
740 
770 
800 
830 
860 
890 
920 
950 
| 970 

j 990 
1,010 
1,030 
1,050 
1,070 
1,090 
1,110 
1,130 
1,150 
1,170 
1,190 
1,210 
1,230 


Plate  VI, 


MANZ 

CHICAGO. 


SWIVEL-DUMPING  CLAY  CAR. 


PHYSICAL  PROPERTIES  OF  CLAYS, 


73 


TABLE  10 — Continued. 

COMPOSITION  AND  FUSING  POINTS  OF  SEGER  CONES— Continued. 


No.  oj 
Cone 


Composition 


6 

7 

8 
9 

10 

11 

12 

13 

14 

15 

16 

17 

18 

19 

20 
21 
22 

23 

24 

25 

26 

27 

28 

29 

30 

31 

32 

33 

34 

35 

36 


0.3  K20 1 

0.7  CaO 


{o' 


3 K20. 
7 CaO. 
0.3  K20. 
0.7  CaO. 
0.3  K20. 
0.7  CaO. 
0.3  K20. 
0.7  CaO. 
0.3  K20. 
0.7  CaO. 
0.3  K20. 
0.7  CaO. 
0.3  K20. 
0.7  CaO. 
0.3  K20. 
0.7  CaO. 
0.3  K20. 
0.7  CaO. . 
0.3  K20. 
0.7  CaO.. 
f 0.3  K20. 
\ 0.7  CaO.. 
r o.3  k2o. 
| 0.7  CaO. . 


0.7  CaO. 
0.3  K20. 
0.7  CaO. 
0.3  KoO. 
0.7  CaO. 
O. 
CaO. 
0.3  K20. 
0.7  CaO. 
K20. 
CaO. 
0.3  K20. 
0.7  CaO. 
K20. 
CaO. 
0.3  K20. 
0.7  CaO. 


f 0.3  K2 
\ 0.7  Ca 
f 0.3 
\ 0.7 
/ 0.3 
\0.7 
r o.3 

\ 0.7 
r o.3 
\ 0.7 


|0.6  A1203 

"1 

jo. 7 A1203 

7.0  Si02 

J 0 . 8 A1203 

8.0  Si02. 

Jo. 9 A1203 

9.0  Si02. 

J 1.0  A1203 

10.0  Si02. 

Jl.2  A1203 

. ...  12.0  Si02. 

J1.4  ai2o3 

14.0  Si02. 

Jl.6  ai2o3 

16.0  Si02 

Jl.8  A1203 

18.0  Si02. 

^2.1  A1203 

. . . . 21  0 Si02 . 

1 2 4 A1203 

...  24  0 Si02 . 

2.7  A1203 

...  27.0  Si02. 

[3.1  A1203 

...  31.0  Si02. 

^3.5  A1203 

...  35.0  Si02. 

3.9  A1.203 39.0  Si02. 

4.4A1203 44.0  Si02. 

4.9A1203 49.0  Si02. 

5.4  A12Oj 54.0  Si02. 

6.0  A1203 60.0  Si02. 

6.6  A1^03 66.0  Si02. 

7.2  A1203 72.0  Si02. 

2.0  A1203 200.0  Si02. 

A1203 10.0  Si02. 

A1203 8.0  Si02. 

A1203 6.0  Si02 . 

A1203..., 5.0  Si02 . 

A1203 4.0  Si02 . 

A1203 3.OS1O2. 

A1203 2.5  Si02. 

A1203 2.0  Si02. 

A1203 1.5  Si02 . 


Fusing  Point 


°F 

°C 

2,282 

1,250 

2,318 

1,270 

2,354 

1,290 

2,390 

1,310 

2,426 

1,330 

2,462 

1,350 

2,498 

1,370 

2,534. 

1,390 

2,570 

1,410 

2,606 

1,430 

2,642 

1,450 

2,678 

1,470 

2,714 

1,490 

2,750 

1,510 

2,786 

1,530 

2,822 

1,550 

2,852 

1,570 

2,894 

1,590 

2,930 

1,610 

2,966 

1,630 

3,002 

1,650 

3,038 

1,670 

3,074 

3,110 

3,146 

3,182 

3,218 

3,254 

3,290 

3,326 

3,322 

1,690 

1,710 

1,730 

1,750 

1,770 

1,790 

1,810 

1,830 

f,850 

74 


CLAYS  OF  MISSISSIPPI. 


There  are  also  some  recording  pyrometers  in  use.  The  Bristo 
recording  pyrometer,  according  to  the  Iron  Trade  Review  (Nov.  8 
1906),  consists  of  three  distinct  parts,  viz.,  the  recorder,  which  is 
located  at  the  point  most  convenient  for  observation  of  the  records, 
and  for  changing  of  the  charts;  the  thermo-electric  couple,  the 
fire-end  of  which  is  to  be  inserted  into  the  space  where  the  tem- 
perature is  to  be  measured;  the  leads,  consisting  of  duplex  flexible 
cable  for  making  the  electric  connection  between  the  records  and 
the  fire  ends. 

“The  thermo-electric  couple,  which  is  located  where  the  tempera- 
ture is  to  be  measured,  produces  a current  of  electricity,  which  is 
communicated  to  the  recorder  through  the  connecting  leads.  This 
current  actuates  a face,  which  is  so  sensitive  that  a record  may  be 
made  upon  it  with  a hair.  When  applied  to  the  instrument,  the  chart 
is  supported  only  over  a portion  of  its  surface  by  a semi-circular 
plate.  The  clock  movement  for  revolving  the  chart  is  contained  in 
the  round  case  behind  the  semi-circular  chart  support,  and  is  pro- 
vided with  an  auxiliary  attachment  for  periodically  vibrating  the 
unsupported  portion  of  the  chart,  thus  bringing  the  smoked  surface 
into  contact  with  the  pointed  end  of  the  recorder  arm  at  intervals 
of  a few  seconds.  By  this  means,  the  record  of  its  position  is  obtained 
and  friction  is  eliminated. 

“The  series  of  marks  made  by  this  periodic  contact  of  the  recorder 
arm  which  removes  the  carbon  from  the  chart,  forms  a continuous 
curve,  unless  the  changes  in  temperature  are  extremely  rapid.  After 
the  record  of  the  day  is  completed  the  chart  may  be  removed  from 
the  instrument  and  'fixed’  by  immersion  in  a fixitive  solution,  which 
consists  of  gasoline  or  alcohol,  to  which  has  been  added  a small 
amount  of  concentrated  fixitive.  After  fixing,  the  charts  may  be 
handled  and  filed  without  any  danger  of  destroying  the  record. 

“The  simplicity  of  construction  insures  durability  and  permanent 
accuracy  and  makes  the  operation  of  the  instrument  an  easy  matter. 
The  protecting  case  containing  the  galvanometer  is  hinged  to  the 
back  of  the  recorder.  This  arrangement  prevents  injury  to  the 
recorder  arm  while  the  charts  are  being  changed  or  the  clock  wound. 

“It  should  be  mentioned  that  the  coating  of  lampblack  on  the 
charts  is  not  sufficient  to  obscure  the  graduations,  and  the  edges  and 
center  are  unsmoked.  The  charts  can  therefore  be  conveniently 


Plate  VII. 


CONICAL  CORRUGATED  CLAY  CRUSHER. 


PHYSICAL  PROPERTIES  OF  CLAYS. 


75 


handled  and  packed  for  shipment.  The  couples  employed  for  ranges 
not  exceeding  2,000  degrees  Fahr.  are  made  of  special  alloys,  which 
are  inexpensive,  and  may  be  of  almost  any  desired  form  or  length  to 
suit  the  special  requirements.  For  ranges  above  2,000  degrees  Fahr. 
the  standard  Le  Chatelier  platinum-rhodium  elements  are  used. 
Compound  couples  may  be  used  to  reduce  the  high  cost  of  the  plati- 
num-rhodium element.  The  inexpensive  alloys  employed  for  the 
extension  of  the  couple  are  such  that  the  two  secondary  thermo- 
electric effects  at  the  junctions  with  the  platinum  and  the  platinum- 
rhodium  elements  neutralize  each  other  if  the  temperature  at  these 
junctions  does  not  exceed  1,200  degrees  Fahr.  The  indications  on 
the  instrument  will  be  the  same  as  if  the  whole  couple  had  been 
made  of  the  more  expensive  metals.  Where  there  are  varying 
temperatures  at  the  cold  end  of  the  couple,  a mercury  compensator 
is  used,  which  automatically  changes  the  resistance  of  the  circuit, 
so  that  no  connection  is  necessary  for  the  working  range  of  the  instru- 
ment.” 

MECHANICAL  ANALYSIS. 

Clay  is  a mechanical  mixture  of  mineral  particles.  These  particles 
vary  in  size  from  those  which  are  easily  detected  by  the  unaided 
eye  to  those  which  may  be  seen  only  by  the  use  of  a powerful  micro- 
scope. The  mechanical  analysis  of  a clay  consists  in  the  separation 
of  these  particles  into  various  groups.  Because  of  the  extreme 
degree  of  gradation  in  the  size  of  the  particles  a complete  separation 
is  not  possible,  and  it  is  not  essential  for  the  purposes  of  the  clay 
worker. 

In  the  mechanical  analysis  of  soils  the  following  methods  of 
grouping  have  been  employed  and  the  same  or  similar  grouping  are 
applicable,  and  have  been  applied,  in  the  separation  of  clays: 


TABLE  II. 

METHODS 

OF  GROUPING  IN  MECHANICAL  ANALYSIS. 

No. 

of  Group 

Hilgard 

Hopkins 

Osborne 

Whitney  Name  of  Group 

1 

3.0  m.m. 

1 .0  m.m. 

3.0  m.m. 

2.0  m.m.  Fine  gravel 

2 

1.0  m.m. 

.32  m.m. 

1.0  m.m. 

1 .0  m.m.  Coarse  6and 

3 

.5  m.m. 

.1  m.m. 

.5  m.m. 

.5  m.m.  Medium  sand 

4 

.3  m.m. 

.032  m. 

.25  m.m. 

.25  m.m.  Fine  sand 

5 

. 16  m.m. 

.01  m.m. 

.05  m.m. 

.01  m.m.  Very  fine  sand 

6 

.12  m.m. 

.0032  m. 

.01  m.m. 

.05  m.m.  Silt 

7 

.072  m. 

.001  m. 

.005  Clay 

8 

.047  m. 

9 

.036  m. 

10 

.025  m. 

11 

.016  m. 

12 

.010  m. 

76 


CLAYS  OF  MISSISSIPPI. 


A number  of  methods  of  mechanical  analyses  has  been  employed. 
They  may  be  classified  under  three  heads,  viz:  the  beaker  or  decan- 
tation method  used  by  Osborne  and  others;  the  elutriation  method 
of  Hilgard,  and  the  centrifugal  method  used  by  the  United  States 
Bureau  of  Soils.  (See  Bui.  24,  U.  S.  Agric.  Dept.) 

In  the  Osborne  method  of  analysis  the  soil  to  be  analyzed  is 
placed  in  a cylinder  containing  water.  After  being  agitated,  the 
suspended  particles  are  allowed  to  settle  until  only  those  of  the 
smallest  group  remain  in  suspension.  The  water  is  then  drawn  off 
and  the  process  is  repeated  until  all  the  particles  belonging  to  this 
group  have  been  removed.  Then  the  next  larger  group  is  removed. 
The  water  is  evaporated,  the  particles  dried  and  weighed  and  the  per 
cent  which  they  form  of  the  whole  determined.  All  of  the  groups  of 
finer  particles  are  removed  in  this  way.  The  larger  particles  are 
separated  by  means  of  sieves. 

Hilgard’s  elutriation  consists  of  a vertical  cylinder  containing 
a rapidly  revolving  stirrer  at  the  bottom.  At  the  bottom  a stream 
of  water  is  forced  through  this  cylinder  at  a given  velocity.  The 
size  of  the  particles  carried  out  by  the  current  depends  on  the  velocity 
of  the  current;  i.  e.,  a velocity  of  4 m.m.  per  second  is  sufficient  to 
carry  out  all  particles  of  quartz  less  than  0.25  m.m.  in  diameter, 
and  a velocity  of  64  m.m.  per  second  would  carry  out  particles  2 m.m. 
in  diameter.  The  elutriatior  is  used  for  separating  particles  larger 
than  0.01  m.m.  in  diameter.  The  finer  particles  are  separated  by 
subsidence. 

In  the  centrifugal  method,  the  soil  is  first  disintegrated  by  the 
use  of  a mechanical  shaker,  an  instrument  for  shaking  samples  of 
soil  in  water,  for  a period  of  time  sufficient  to  cause  the  complete 
separation  of  all  aggregations  of  particles.  The  water  containing 
the  suspended  particles  of  soil  is  then  placed  in  the  test  tubes  of  a 
centrifugal  machine.  The  machine  is  rotated  until  all  of  the  coarse 
particles  are  thrown  down.  The  particles  of  the  finest  group  are 
decanted  off.  The  process  is  repeated  until  only  the  coarser  material 
remains  and  this  is  separated  by  the  use  of  sieves. 

By  the  use  of  a method  suggested  by  Beyer  and  Williams  (see 
Vol.  XIV,  Iowa  Geol.  Sur.)  the  mechanical  analysis  of  a number  of 
types  of  Mississippi  clays  was  made  with  the  following  results: 


Plate  VIII. 


HORIZONTAL  GRANULATOR 


PHYSICAL  PROPERTIES  OF  CLAYS. 


77 


TABLE  12. 

MECHANICAL  ANALYSES  OF  MISSISSIPPI  CLAYS. 

— Per  Cent 


Fine 

Coarse 

Medium 

Fine 

Very  Fine 

Silt 

Clay 

Formation 

Locality 

Gravel 

Sand 

Sand 

Sand 

Sand 

Brown  loam. . 

.Jackson 

0.0 

0.5 

0.2 

10 

5 

60 

22 

Brown  loam. . 

.Yazoo 

0.0 

0.5 

0.3 

2 

4 

75 

15 

Lafayette . . . . 

.Newton 

0.5 

2.0 

12.0 

53 

8 

20 

5 

Flatwoods. . . . 

.Bradley 

2.0 

3.0 

10 

50 

13 

10 

Selma 

. Starkville. . . 

1.0 

2.0 

4.0 

8 

9 

40 

20 

Alluvium 

. Moorhead. . . 

0.0 

0.2 

1.0 

2 

2 

58 

30 

(Buckshot) 
Alluvium 

.Greenwood.. 

0.1 

1.0 

1.5 

2 

2 

42 

45 

(Buckshot) 

BONDING  POWER. 

The  bonding  power  of  a clay  is  its  power  to  hold  together  particles 
of  non-plastic  materials.  The  bonding  power  of  a clay  is  dependent 
in  a measure  on  the  amount  of  clay  substance  which  the  clay  con- 
tains. It  also  depends  on  the  size  of  the  grain  of  the  inert  matter 
added.  To  illustrate,  a larger  amount  of  finely  divided  sand  may 
be  added  to  a clay  without  decreasing  its  plasticity  and  bonding 
power  .than  of  coarse  sand.  It  is  often  necessary,  in  order  to  secure 
the  proper  shrinkage  and  drying  capacity  in  a clay  ware,  to  use  a 
mixture  of  two  clays  or  to  add  sand  or  grog  to  the  clay.  The  quantity 
of  the  inert  matter  which  may  be  added  without  seriously  impairing 
the  strength  of  the  ware  will  depend  on  the  bonding  power  of  the  clay. 
Bonding  power  is  an  essential  property. 

TENSILE  STRENGTH. 

The  amount  of  resistance  which  a clay  offers  to  pull  is  termed  its 
tensile  strength.  Wet  clays  possess  this  property  to  a slight  degree; 
dry  clays  to  a greater  degree,  and  burned  clays  to  a still  higher  degree. 
Were  it  not  for  this  property  it  would  be  impossible  to  handle  clay 
ware  because  of  the  ease  with  which  they  would  be  cracked  or  broken. 
The  tensile  strength  of  a clay  is  not  due  to  any  chemical  change  but 
to  the  physical  cohesion  of  its  particles.  It  was  formerly  thought 
that  the  tensile  strength  of  a clay  was  a safe  guide  to  plasticity,  but 
it  is  no  longer  so,  for  the  reason  that  many  very  plastic  clays  have 
been  found  to  have  a very  low  tensile  strength. 

In  preparing  clay  for  the  tensile  strength  test,  the  clay  is  first 
rolled  or  crushed  in  a mortar  until  it  is  in  the  condition  of  a powder. 


78 


CLAYS  OF  MISSISSIPPI. 


Then  in  order  to  separate  all  particles  of  a certain  maximum  size, 
the  powder  is  passed  through  a sieve.  The  sieve  used  in  our  experi- 
ments has  only  forty  meshes  to  the  inch.  To  this  powdered  clay 
water  was  added  in  sufficient  quantity  to  form  a plastic  body.  The 
wet  clay  was  then  molded  in  brass  molds  into  brickettes.  The  form 
of  the  mold  is  seen  in  Figure  1. 


Two  methods  of  placing  the  clay  in  the  molds  were  tried.  In 
the  first  the  brass  mold  was  oiled  and  placed  upon  an  oiled  glass 
surface.  The  clay  was  then  pressed  into  the  mold  by  the  fingers  and 
by  the  use  of  a small  wooden  tamp  cut  to  fit  the  mold.  The  clay  was 
cut  off  on  a level  with  the  top  of  the  mold  by  the  use  of  a putty  knife. 
By  moistening  the  blade  of  the  knife  and  passing  it  across  the  surface 
of  the  clay,  both  surfaces  were  made  perfectly  smooth.  By  the  use 
of  the  tamp  the  clay  was  then  pressed  out  of  the  mold  upon  an  oiled 
glass  surface.  After  remaining  in  this  position  for  a couple  of  hours 
the  brickettes  were  placed  upon  edge  in  order  that  both  sides  might 
dry  equally.  This  is  necessary  in  order  to  prevent  cracking  or  warp- 
ing. This  method  of  molding  was  found  unsatisfactory  because  of 
the  difficulty  in  preventing  laminations  which  would  weaken  the 


Plate  IX 


REDUCTION  MILL 


PHYSICAL  PROPERTIES  OF  CLAYS. 


79 


tensile  strength  of  the  brickette.  Flaws  due  to  air  blebs  were  also 
produced. 

By  following  a method  of  molding  suggested  by  Orton*  better 
results  were  obtained.  The  clay  was  now  wedged  into  blocks  about 
3 inches  long  by  1}  inches  square.  These  blocks  were  now  clamped 
into  the  molds  and  patted  in  until  the  clay  completely  filled  the  mold. 
The  treatment  from  this  point  on  was  the  same  as  in  the  other  method. 
In  the  case  of  every  brick  prepared  in  this  way  the  broken  section 
of  the  brickette  was  found  to  be  homogenous  in  structure.  A number 
of  clays  were  tested  by  both  methods.  The  relative  merits  of  the 
two  methods  may  be  determined  from  the  following  comparison  of 
results  obtained  from  tests  made  on  a West  Point  brick  clay.  Twelve 
brickettes  molded  by  the  first  method  varied  in  tensile  strength 
from  60  pounds  per  square  inch  to  151  pounds  per  square  inch  and  the 
average  tensile  strength  of  the  twelve  was  144  pounds  per  square 
inch.  Twelve  brickettes  molded  by  the  second  method  varied  in 
tensile  strength  from  122  pounds  per  square  inch  to  181  pounds  per 
square  inch  and  the  average  tensile  strength  of  the  twelve  brickettes 
was  152  pounds  per  square  inch. 


The  form  of  the  brickette  is  shown  in  Figure  2.  In  its  longest 
dimension  it  is  three  inches.  The  cross  section  of  the  brickette  at 
the  middle,  if  there  is  no  shrinkage,  is  one  square  inch.  The  shoulders 
of  the  brickette  have  a width  of  1 11-16  inches.  The  thickness  of 
the  brickette  at  any  point  is  one  inch,  less  the  shrinkage.  After  air 


♦Transactions  of  Am.  Cer.  Soc.,  Vol.  II,  p.  110. 


so 


CLAYS  OF  MISSISSIPPI. 


drying  the  brickettes  were  placed  in  an  oven  and  the  hygroscopic 
moisture  driven  out  at  the  temperature  of  boiling  water.  The  brick- 
ettes were  then  measured  to  obtain  the  amount  of  shrinkage. 

The  brickettes  were  tested  by  the  use  of  a Fairbank’s  Cement 
Machine.  The  brickettes  were  placed  in  the  clips  of  the  machine 
and  subjected  to  a gradually  increasing  tension.  The  increase  of 
tension  is  secured  by  the  weight  of  shot  discharging  into  the  pail  cn 
the  lever  arm.  At  the  moment  of  breaking,  the  discharge  of  shot  is 
stopped  automatically.  If  the  brickettes  have  undergone  much 
shrinkage,  they  will  not  fit  the  clips  of  the  machine  and  it  will  be 
necessary  to  bush  them.  This  may  be  done  by  placing  cardboard 
or  blotter  paper  between  the  brickette  and  the  clip. 

The  tensile  strength  is  expressed  in  pounds  per  square  inch  and 
the  shrinkage  was  calculated  and  taken  into  account  in  estimating 
the  tensile  strength  of  the  brickettes. 

In  the  majority  of  tests  twelve  brickettes  of  raw  clay  were  tested, 
and  twelve  burned  brickettes.  The  average  of  these  twelve  tests 
were  taken.  The  results  of  these  tests  are  found  under  the  discussion 
of  the  physical  properties  of  each  clay. 

TABLE  13. 

TENSILE  STRENGTH  OF  MISSISSIPPI  BRICK  CLAYS. 

Tensile  Strength  in  Pounds  per  Square  Inch 


Formation 

Raw  Clay 

Burned  Clay 

Yazoo  alluvium  (“buckshot”  typel 

188 

484 

Yazoo  alluvium  (sandy  type) 

90 

157 

Jackson  residual  clav 

78 

112 

Lafayette 

94 

212 

Flatwoods  (Porter’s  Creek) 

116 

185 

Selma  residual 

133 

333 

Buhrstone 

187 

181 

Brown  loam 

78  • 

133 

The  figures  given  in  this  table  represent  the  average  of  a large 
number  of  tests  made  on  brickettes  molded  from  clay  collected  from 
a great  many  localities.  The  individual  strength  of  these  clays  is 
given  in  the  discussion  of  the  physical  properties  of  each  clay.  The 
brickettes  tested  in  the  burned  condition  were  burned  at  a good  red 
heat,  but  because  of  the  differences  in  the  clays  all  of  the  brickettes 
were  not  of  equal  hardness.  Some  of  them  exhibited  a lower  tensile 
strength  than  if  they  had  been  burned  at  a slightly  higher  tempera- 


Plate  X, 


DRY  PAN 


PHYSICAL  PROPERTIES  OF  CLAYS. 


81 


ture.  The  greater  number  of  brickettes  would  have  been  classed 
as  medium;  a few  were  soft;  none,  however,  were  hard. 

POROSITY. 

A porous  clay  is  one  which  contains  considerable  space  not  occu- 
pied by  clay  particles.  This  unoccupied  space  is  called  pore  space 
and  its  volume  depends  on  the  size  and  shape  of  the  clay  particles. 
The  maximum  volume  of  pore  space  would  be  reached  in  a clay  con- 
taining spherical  grains  of  equal  size.  However,  the  shape  and  size 
of  the  grains  in  clays  are  extremely  variable.  The  quartz  grains  are 
usually  rounded,  water-worn  particles,  but  in  some  residual  clays 
chey  are  sharp  angled.  The  mica  grains  are  little  flat  crystals  with 
irregular  edges.  The  kaolinite  may  be  flat  or  irregular  in  shape. 
The  feldspar  grains  are  either  more  or  less  rounded  or  irregular. 
The  grains  are  in  contact  only  at  certain  points,  thus  leaving  spac.e*s 
between  the  particles.  These  pores  are  in  connection  with  other 
pores,  and  by  a long  chain  of  such  connections  irregular  tubes  are 
formed.  These  tubes  are  of  capillary  size,  and  the  water  which  is 
within  the  clay  may  pass  to  the  surface  by  capillarity. 

Porosity  is  an  important  property  in  clays.  The  amount  cf 
water  required  for  tempering  the  clay  depends  in  a large  measure  on 
its  porosity'.  The  air-shrinkage  of  the  clay  is  brought  about  by  the 
loss  of  this  water.  The  speed  of  tempering  and  the  speed  of  drying 
depend  on  the  porosity.  The  larger  the  pores  the  more  readily  the 
water  is  taken  up  and  given  off 


CHAPTER  IV. 


PROCESSES  OF  CLAY  MANUFACTURE. 


MINING. 

The  method  of  mining  clay  for  use  in  the  manufacture  of  brick 
varies  with  the  conditions  under  which  the  clay  occurs  and  also  with 
other  conditions,  such  as  the  capacity  of  the  plant.  For  example, 
drilling  and  blasting  may  be  necessary  in  the  mining  of  a hard  shale, 
while  undermining  with  pick  and  shovel  may  be  used  to  great  advan- 
tage in  the  mining  of  many  of  the  incoherent  surface  clays. 

Clays  are  mined  either  by  surface  diggings  or  by  underground 
workings. 

Underground  mining  may  be  conducted  by  the  use  of  vertical 
shafts,  through  which  the  clay  is  usually  brought  to  surface  by  the 
use  of  buckets  attached  by  a rope  to  a windlass.  If  the  clay  should 
outcrop  on  the  side  or  near  the  base  of  a hill,  it  may  be  mined  by  the 
use  of  drifts  or  by  the  use  of  tunnels. 

The  different  methods  of  surface  mining  may  be  classed  as  the 
(1)  pick  and  shovel  method,  (2)  plow  and  scraper  method,  and  (3) 
steam  shovel  method. 

Pick  and  Shovel  Method. — Usually  the  full  thickness  of  the  clay  is 
exposed  at  once  by  digging  a pit  to  the  bottom  of  the  clay  bed.  A 
sloping  entrance  to  the  pit  is  left  on  one  side  to  facilitate  hauling. 
If  the  clay  be  uniform  in  quality  it  is  undermined  near  the  base  with 
a pick,  causing  the  clay  above  to  break  off  and  thus  securing  the  aid 
of  gravity  in  the  prosecution  of  the  work.  If  there  are  two  or  more 
kinds  of  clay  which  it  is  desirable  to  mix,  the  upper  layer  may  be 
removed  for  a short  distance  back,  then  the  lower  clay  undermined. 
The  two  clays  are  thus  kept  separate  and  may  be  mixed  in  any  desired 
proportion.  In  some  clay  pits  nearly  every  spade  length  in  depth 
represents  a change  in  quality  of  clay,  so  that  mining  may  be  con- 
ducted on  five  or  six  levels.  In  many  surface  clays  the  upper  portion 
of  the  bed  is  so  sandy  that  it  may  be  readily  mined  with  the  spade, 


$4 


CLAYS  OF  MISSISSIPPI. 


but  the’ bottom  clay  may  be  a stiff  joint  clay  which  will  require  the 
use  of  pick  and  shovel. 

Plow  and  Scraper  Method. — The  usual  method  of  mining  surface 
clays  is  by  the  use  of  the  plow  and  scraper.  The  size  of  the  plow 
and  of  the  scraper,  and  the  number  of  horses  employed,  depend  on 
the  capacity  of  the  plant.  The  area  of  the  proposed  pit  is  first  plowed 
and  the  soil  removed.  Then  it  is  replowed  and  the  clay  taken  either 
directly  to  the  machine  or  to  the  mellowing  shed,  as  the  case  may  be, 
or  it  is  taken  to  a dump  and  thrown  into  a car  "which  is  used  to  trans- 
port the  clay  to  a shed  or  machine. 

If  the  clay  be  uniform,  this  process  of  plowing  and  scraping  may 
continue  until  the  bottom  of  the  clay  stratum  is  reached.  It  fre- 
quently happens  that  there  is  a marked  difference  in  quality  between 
the  clay  in  the  top  layers  and  that  in  the  lower  layers  of  the  clay 
stratum.  Under  these  circumstances  the  best  results  may  be  ob- 
tained only  by  mixing  the  top  and  bottom  clays  in  certain  propor- 
tions. In  order  to  secure  the  proper  mixture  it  may  be  necessary  to 
remove  the  top  layers  from  a portion  of  the  pit.  This  top  clay  so 
removed  may  be  placed  convenient  to  the  machine  or  the  dump,  so 
that  it  may  be  used  later  and  the  labor  of  its  removal  not  wholly  lost. 
The  clay  is  now  taken  partly  from  the  bottom  layers  and  partly  from 
the  top  in  the  proportion  to  give  the  best  results.  Usually  the  sides 
of  the  pit  are  kept  sloping,  so  that  the  plow  may  cross  the  top  clay 
diagonally,  cross  the  bottom  clay  near  the  center  of  the  pit  and  pass 
across  the  top  clay  again  at  the  farther  side. 

Steam  Shovel  Method. — In  plants  of  large  capacity  the  steam  shovel 
is  employed  in  mining  operations.  Its  use  generally  means  a great 
economy  in  labor.  The  first  cost  makes  it  prohibitive  for  a plant  of 
small  size.  To  operate  the  steam  shovel  a track  is  laid  on  the  bottom 
of  the  pit,  and  the  clay  scooped  from  top  to  bottom  of  the  wall  or 
face  of  the  pit.  The  clay  pit  is  usually  enlarged  in  a semi-circle. 
The  track  upon  which  the  shovel  runs  is  laid  parallel  with  the  periphery 
and  advanced  as  the  wall  advances.  Inside  of  the  steam  shovel 
track  is  another  track  for  the  cars.  When  the  shovel  is  loaded,  a 
swinging  crane  moves  it  over  the  car.  When  in  the  proper  position 
the  bottom  of  the  shovel  is  opened  and  the  clay  emptied  into  the  car. 
The  steam  shovel  of  the  dipper  type  has  a radius  of  action  of  fifteen 


Plate  XI. 


STIFF-MUD  BRICK  MACHINE,  END  CUT. 


PROCESSES  OP  CLAY  MANUFACTURE. 


85 


feet  and  greater.  A cut  is  first  made  for  a certain  distance,  extend- 
ing to  the  bottom  of  the  clay  stratum.  A track  is  laid  upon  the  sur- 
face of  the  cut,  and  upon  this  track  the  steam  shovel  is  placed.  The 
shovel  dips  the  clay  from  one  bank  and  delivers  it  to  cars  on  the 
opposite  side.  As  the  face  of  the  cut  advances,  the  track  is  moved 
forward  and  the  clay  removed  from  gradually  increasing  circles. 
The  clay  is  well  mixed,  as  the  shovel  takes  clay  from  all  parts  of  the 
face  at  each  dip. 

TRANSPORTATION. 

A number  of  methods  for  the  transportation  of  raw  clay  from 
the  pit  to  the  machine  are  employed.  These  may  be  classed  as  (1) 
wheelbarrow  haulage,  (2)  cart  haulage,  (3)  wagon  haulage,  (4)  scraper 
haulage,  (5)  car  haulage. 

Wheelbarrow  Haulage. — Wheelbarrows  moved  by  hand  power  are 
employed  to  a very  limited  extent  in  some  plants.  Usually  the  plants 
are  of  small  capacity,  and  the  distance  which  the  clay  must  be  moved 
very  short.  Some  large  plants  use  wheelbarrows  to  transport  clays 
from  storage  bins  to  pug  mills. 

Cart  Haulage. — Hauling  clay  in  a cart  is  not  an  uncommon  way  of 
transporting  clays  The  carts  are  provided  with  two  wheels,  and 
are  strongly  constructed.  They  are  usually  drawn  by  one  mule, 
though  two  mules  hitched  tandem  are  sometimes  employed.  The 
cart  is  provided  with  stout  shafts  and  the  harness  is  arranged  so  that 
the  shafts  may  be  tilted  up  and  the  clay  dumped  out  at  the  rear  end 
of  the  cart.  This  saves  the  labor  of  shoveling  in  unloading.  The 
mule  is  generally  driven  by  a boy  who  sits  on  the  front  end-board  of 
the  cart.  The  clay  digger  loads  the  carts,  and  a man  may  be  em- 
ployed to  dump  the  carts  as  they  come  to  the  ring  pit  or  pug  mill. 
This  method  of  haulage  is  not  employed  for  great  distances,  and 
only  on  comparatively  level  ground. 

Wagon  Haulage. — Two-horse  wagons  are  employed  by  some  brick 
manufacturers.  They  are  used  where  the  distance  from  the  plant  to 
the  pit  is  considerable,  and  the  road  rough.  This  is  not  an  eco- 
nomical form  of  haulage  for  a plant  of  large  capacity.  Two-horse 
or  four-horse  wagons  are  also  employed  in  transporting  clay  from 
railroad  cars  to  the  plant. 


86 


CLAYS  OF  MISSISSIPPI. 


Scraper  Haulage. — If  the  clay  used  is  a surface  clay  and  the  pit 
easily  accessible  to  the  machine,  two-horse  drag  scrapers  may  be 
employed  to  move  the  clay.  They  are  also  employed  for  loading 
the  cars  used  by  many  plants.  . 

Wheel  scrapers  are  employed  in  many  dry-press  plants,  in  which 
it  is  desirable  to  store  the  clay  in  advance  of  use.  Two  horses  are 
employed  to  draw  them.  The  use  of  the  scraper  facilitates  the  mixing 
of  the  clay.  It  is  very  frequently  desirable  to  mix  a plastic  clay  and 
a non-plastic  clay.  A layer  of  one  kind  of  clay  is  spread  over  the 
floor  of  the  storing  shed.  This  is  covered  with  a layer  of  the  other 
kind  of  clay,  and  the  process  repeated  until  the  clay  reaches  the 
desired  height  in  the  shed.  In  using  the  clay,  a section  is  taken  from 
top  to  bottom  of  the  stored  clay.  This  method  makes  it  possible  to 
secure  the  proper  proportion  of  each  clay,  and  the  mixing  becomes 
more  thorough  in  passing  through  the  machinery. 

The  clay  gatherer  is  used  in  some  plants.  This  is  a cylindrical 
wheeled  scraper  which  gathers  the  clay  and  transports  it  to  the  plant. 

Car  Haulage. — This  form  of  haulage  is  used  in  nearly  all  plants  of 
large  daily  capacity.  'The  track  consists  of  two  parallel  lines  of 
wooden,  or  more  often  iron,  rails  of  light  weight  laid  on  crossties. 
The  rails  vary  in  weight  from  12  to  20  pounds,  though  it  is  generally 
not  considered  economy  to  use  a rail  lighter  than  20  pound-s,  since 
the  car  wheels  are  worn  so  much  more  rapidly  with  the  lighter  rail. 
The  ties  are  usually  4 x 4 or  4 x 5,  oak  or  pine  pieces.  The  cars  used 
vary  in  capacity  from  one  to  three  cubic  yards.  Most  of  the  cars  now 
in  use  have  the  boxes  mounted  on  pivots  so-  that  they  may  be  swung 
around  and  dumped  from  any  position.  They  may  be  dumped  for- 
ward, backward  or  to  either  side. 

Selection  of  Timber  for  Tracks. — The  selection  of  timber  for  the  ties 
in  the  larger  plants  for  the  haulage  track  and  the  steam  shovel  track 
becomes  an  important  matter.  It  is  economy  to  select  the  most 
durable  timber  for  such  situations. 

The  durability  of  ties  varies  with  the  conditions.  The  kind  of 
wood  used  is  one  of  the  determinative  factors  of  its  durability.  Ex- 
periments tend  to  show  that  under  like  conditions  different  woods 
will  last  as  follows: 


Plate  XII. 


ROTARY  CLAY  SCREEN  OF  THE  OCTAGON  FORM. 


PROCESSES  OF  CLAY  MANUFACTURE. 


87 


TABLE  14. 

DURABILITY  OF  DIFFERENT  WOODS. 


Ash,  beech  and  maple 4 years 

Spruce,  hemlock,  red  and  black  oaks 5 

Elm  and  long  leaf  pine 6 

Cherry,  black  walnut,  locust  and  tamarack 7 

White  oak  and  chestnut  oak 8 

Chestnut 8 

Black  locust,  cypress  and  red  cedar 10  “ 

Redwood 12 


FIGURE  3.  SIDE-DUMPING  CLAY  CAR. 


Decay  in  wood  is  produced  by  the  growth  of  forms  called  fungi. 
The  conditions  favorable  to  the  growth  of  fungi  are  (1)  abundant 
moisture,  (2)  an  optimum  temperature,  and  (3)  the  presence  of  air. 


88 


CLAYS  OF  MISSISSIPPI. 


The  optimum  temperature  for  most  species  is  about  80°F.  Fungus 
decay  may  be  prevented  by  keeping  the  timber  dry,  or  at  a tem- 
perature exceeding  100°F.,  or  by  immersing  in  water  to  exclude  the 
air. 

Such  methods  of  destroying  the  conditions  favorable  to  fungus 
growth  are  not  practicable  in  the  case  of  ties,  and  it  becomes  necessary 
to  resort  to  some  method  of  excluding  the  moisture.  To  accomplish 
this  the  timber  is  first  kiln  dried  and  then  treated  to  an  immersion 
in  creosote,  tar  or  paint,  which  prevents  the  entrance  of  moisture. 


FIGURE  4.  DOUBLE-FRICTION  HOISTING  DRUM. 

Sap  wood  decays  much  more  readily  and  rapidly  than  heart  wood. 
This  fact  should  be  borne  in  mind  when  selecting  timber  for  damp 
places.  It  should  also  be  remembered  that  certain  species  are  more 
durable  than  others.  Timbers  are  sometimes  preserved  by  steaming 
to  open  the  pores,  and  then  forcing  a combination  of  bichloride  of 
zinc  and  of  creosote  into  the  pores  under  pressure.  These  substances 
“poison”  the  wood  so  that  the  fungi  cannot  feed  upon  it.  The  lon- 
gevity of  the  wood  may  thus  be  increased  two  or  three  fold. 


Plate  XIII. 


PUG  MILL. 


PROCESSES  OP  CLAY  MANUFACTURE. 


89 


GRINDING. 

Clays  are  reduced  to  a pulverulent  or  granular  form  by  the  use  of  a 
variety  of  machines.  The  following  names  are  applied  to  such  ma- 
chines: crushers,  rolls,  disintegrators,  granulators,  pulverizers,  dry 
pans,  ball  machines  and  reduction  mills.  For  some  of  these  to  do 
effective  work  the  clay  must  be  thoroughly  air -dried,  but  some  of 
them  may  be  used  for  pul  verging  damp  clay. 

Crushers.- — Jaw  crushers  are  employed  for  breaking  up  indurated 
clays  or  shales.  They  contain  a pair  of  movable  jaws  between  which 
the  clay  is  crushed.  These  jaws  open  wide  at  the  top,  and  gradually 
close  in  as  the  bottom  is  approached.  Another  type  has  a stationery 
jaw  in  the  shape  of  an  inverted  hollow  cone  in  which  a conical  mova- 
ble jaw  works  upon  a pivot  with  an  up-and-down  movement  alter- 
nately widening  and  narrowing  the  space  between  the  jaws.  (See 
Plate  VII.) 

Rolls.— Rolls  consist  of  two  or  more  iron  or  steel  cylinders  of 
rolls  between  which  the  clay  is  crushed.  In  some  machines  there 
are  two  cylinders  which  are  made  to  revolve  in  opposite  directions. 
The  clay  is  fed  into  a hopper  on  the  upper  side  of  the  rolls,  and  is 
crushed  as  it  passes  between  the  rolls.  In  some  machines  two  small 
cylinders  are  placed  above  two  large  ones.  The  space  between  the 
top  cylinders  is  greater  than  that  between  the  large  ones.  The  rolls 
run  at  different  speeds,  one  having  twice  or  three  times  the  speed 
of  the  other.  The  space  between  the  rolls  is  regulated  by  having 
rubber  or  coil  springs.  The  distance  between  the  rolls  may  be  regu- 
lated for  different  kinds  of  clay.  The  rolls  are  provided  with  scrapers 
for  keeping  them  clean.  The  surface  of  the  rolls  may  be  smooth, 
corrugated,  conical,  toothed  or  conical  and  corrugated.  The  capacity 
varies  from  1,000  to  5,000  bricks  per  hour.  The  speed  of  the  rolls 
is  ordinarily  from  150  to  300  revolutions  per  minute. 

Granulators. — Granulators  are  horizontal,  semi-cylindrical  shells 
in  which  a long  shaft  revolves  centrally.  To  the  shaft  are  attached 
knives  for  cutting  and  tearing  the  clay.  The  angle  at  which  the 
knives  are  set  upon  the  shaft  determines  the  speed  or  movement 
of  the  clay  through  the  granulator.  The  clay  is  fed  into  the  rear 
end  of  the  machine,  and  crushed  and  shoved  forward  by  the  knives. 
The  knives  are  ground  and  polished  to  prevent  the  clay  from  sticking. 


90 


CLAYS  OF  MISSISSIPPI. 


The  speed  of  the  knives  is  from  150  to  300  revolutions  per  minute: 
The  capacity  varies  from  3,000  to  15,000  brick  per  hour. 

Disintegrators .- — Disintegrators  may  be  used  for  handling  dry  or 
damp  clay.  (See  Plate  XVI.)  TKe  machine  is  provided  with  a 
large  roller  which  moves  at  a low  rate  of  speed,  and  feeds  the  clay 
to  a smaller  roller  which  is  provided  with  steel  cutters.  The  cutters 
may  be  replaced  as  they  become  worn.  The  disintegrating  roller  is 
moved  at  a high  rate  of  speed,  and  the  cutters  strike  the  clay  and 
break  it  up.  The  distance  between  the  rollers  is  adjusted  by  moving 
the  feed  roller.  The  speed  of  the  feed  roller  is  30  or  40  revolutions 
per  minute,  while  that  of  the  disintegrator  roller  is  from  400  to  600. 


FIGURE  5.  CLAY  DISINTEGRATOR. 


The  combined  disintegrator  and  pulverizer  consist  of  “several  oppo- 
sitely revolving  cages  formed  of  round  bars,  reinforced  with  iron 
rings  and  secured  to  heavy  cast  circular  discs.  The  bars  of  onefset 
of  cages  project  between  the  bars  of  the  opposite  cages.  No  grinding 
or  crushing  surface  is  presented ; the  material  to  be  disintegrated 
is  received  into  the  inner  cage,  and  by  the  centrifugal  force  created 
by  the  rapidly  revolving  cages,  the  material  is  projected  through 
the  cages  and  against  each  other.”  This  action  by  force  of  impact 
breaks  up  the  clay.  The  differential  speed  between  the  hopper  side 


FIGURE  ().  PEBBLE  CYLINDER  MACHINE 


PROCESSES  OF  CLAY  MANUFACTURE 


92 


CLAYS  OF  MISSISSIPPI. 


and  the  opposite  side  is  usually  about  100  revolutions  per  minute. 
The  capacity  of  the  machines  vary  from  1,000  to  10,000  brick  per 
hour.  (See  Figure  5 and  Plate  XVI.) 

Reduction  Mills.-  Reduction  mills  are  used  for  grinding  dry  clay. 
They  consist  of  a cylindrical  chamber  with  a perforated  bottom 
plate.  Above  the  bottom  a perforated  grinding  plate  revolves 
with  a speed  of  from  300  to  600  revolutions  per  minute.  The  clay 
which  is  thrown  upon  the  plate  furnishes  by  its  own  weight  the 
friction  necessary  for  attrition.  As  the  clay  is  pulverized,  it  drops 
through  the  perforations,  or  by  centrifugal  action  is  thrown  out 
between  the  rings.  (See  Plate  IX.) 

Dry  Pans. — Dry  pans  are  used  for  pulverizing  dry  clays,  grog, 
shales  and  other  hard  materials.  They  consist  of  revolving  pans, 
containing  two  large  rollers  or  wheels  supported  on  horizontal  axes. 
The  pan  is  attached  centrally  to  a vertical  revolving  shaft.  The 
motion  of  the  pan  is  conveyed  to  the  wheels.  The  bottom  of  the- 
pan  in  the  path  of  the  wheels  is  solid.  The  outer  portion  of  the 
bottom  is  perforated.  The  pulverized  clay,  being  thrown  outward 
by  centrifugal  action,  drops  through  the  perforations.  Scrapers 
traversing  the  bottom  of  the  pan  throw  the  clay  in  front  of  the  wheels. 
The  pans  vary  in  diameter  from  5 to  9 feet.  The  perforated  bottom 
of  the  pan  is  generally  made  in  sections  which  may  be  removed, 
and  replaced  by  sections  of  different  mesh.  The  wheels  or  mullers 
have  tires  which  are  removable,  and  may  be  renewed  when  badly 
worn.  The  space  between  the  wheels  and  the  bottom  of  the  pan 
may  be  adjusted  by  the  aid  of  springs  and  adjusting  screws.  The 
gearing  and  pulley  shaft  are  generally  placed  at  the  top  of  the  frame, 
which  may  consist  either  of  wood  or  steel,  but  in  large  machines 
the  latter  is  used  almost  exclusively.  The  machines  vary  in  weight 
from  two  to  fifteen  tons.  Dry  pans  are  sometimes  run  in  pairs, 
both  pans  being  operated  by  the  same  pulley,  the  latter  being  on  the 
center  of  the  shaft  with  a pinion  on  each  end.  (See  Plate  X.) 

Ball  Mills. — Ball  mills  are  sometimes  employed  for  grinding 
fine  grades  of  clay  or  glazes.  They  consist  of  a cylinder  set  in  a frame, 
and  revolved  by  means  of  a driving  pulley,  attached  by  appropriate 
gearing.  The  clay  is  placed  in  the  cylinder  through  an  opening 
in  one  end  of  the  cylinder.  Hard  flint  pebbles  or  porcelain  balls 


PROCESSES  OF  CLAY  MANUFACTURE. 


93 


are  put  into  the  cylinder,  and  as  the  cylinder  revolves  these  strike 
the  clay  and  pulverize  it.  When  it  has  reached  the  proper  degree 
of  fineness,  it  leaves  the  cylinder  through  a perforated  plate.  In 
this  type  of  ball  mill,  the  action  is  continuous.  In  the  periodic 
type,  the  clay  is  put  in,  and  none  removed  until  all  has  reached  the 
proper  degree  of  fineness. 


TABLE  15. 

CRUSHING  MACHINERY  USED  IN  MISSISSIPPI  BRICK  PLANTS. 


1.  Number  of  plants  using  rolls 2 

2.  “ “ “ “ disintegrators 20 

3.  “ “ “ “ granulators 15 

4.  “ “ “ “ dry  pans 2 

5.  “ “ “ “ reduction  mills 0 

6.  “ “ “ “ ball  mills 0 

7.  “ “ “ “no  separate  crushers 41 

Total  number  of  plants  reporting 65 


SCREENING. 

Screens  are  used  in  few  plants  in  this  State  outside  of  pressed 
brick  plants.  They  are  used  in  order  that  the  pulverized  clay  may 
not  contain  particles  larger  than  a certain  maximum  size.  The 
perforated  materials  used  in  the  screen  may  be  either  wire  netting 
or  perforated  iron  or  steel  plates. 

Screens  may  be  classed  as  rotary,  inclined  stationary,  inclined 
vibratory  or  endless  revolving. 

Rotary  Screens. — Rotary  screens  may  be  cylindrical,  conical  cr 
polygonal.  The  screens  are  mounted  in  strong  frames  of  heavy 
timber,  within  which  they  revolve.  Some  are  provided  with  a short 
driving  shaft  to  which  a driving  pulley  is  attached  by  gearing.  Others 
do  not  have  shafts,  but  the  driving  pulley  is  attached  by  a chain 
which  passes  around  a cogged  -flange  on  the  end  of  the  screen.  The 
screen  is  mounted  on  grooved  trunions,  a pair  located  at  each  end 
of  the  screen.  The  cylinders  vary  in  length  usually  from  5 to  9 feet. 
The  end  of  the  screen  opposite  the  gearing  is  elevated  so  that  as  the 
screen  revolves  the  clay  moves  longitudinally  through  the  screen. 
The  tailings,  material  too  coarse  to  pass  through  the  perforations 
of  the  screen,  pass  out  at  the  end  of  the  screen,  and  are  carried  back 
to  the  grinder  by  means  of  a chute  or  other  form  of  conveyor.  The 


94 


CLAYS  OF  MISSISSIPPI. 


fine  clay  drops  through  the  screen  into  a bin  below.  The  rotary 
screens  are  kept  clean  by  means  of  metal  brushes  or  some  automatic 
jarring  device.  (See  Plate  XII.) 

Inclined  Stationary  Screen. — The  inclined  stationary  screen  is  in 
the  form  of  an  inclined  floor  over  which  the  crushed  clay  passes 
under  the  influence  of  gravity.  The  inclination  of  the  screen  will 
determine  the  velocity  of  the  clay  and  also  the  maximum  size  of  grain 
of  the  screened  clay.  The  lower  the  velocity  of  the  clay  the  smaller 
the  size  of  the  largest  particle  passing  the  screen.  If  the  screen 
be  placed  at  a low  degree  of  inclination,  more  of  the  clay  will  adhere 
to  the  surface  of  the  screen.  Sometimes  a steam  coil  is  placed  on 
the  under  side  of  the  screen  to  heat  the  screen,  or  prevent  the  clay 
from  sticking  to  its  surface.  The  pulverized  clay  drops  through 
the  screen  into  a bin,  while  the  tailings  are  carried  from  the  end  cf* 
the  screen  back  to  the  crusher. 

Inclined  Vibratory  Screen. — The  inclined  vibratory  screen  has  a 
much  lower  angle  of  inclination  than  the  stationary,  and  for  that 
reason  requires  a constant  movement  of  the  screen  to  aid  in  the  move- 
ment of  the  clay  across  it.  The  vibratory  movements  may  be  either 
transverse  cr  lcngitudinal.  *“This  movement  is  imparted  by  either 
an  eccentric  or  crank.  The  clay  is  thrown  on  the  screen,  and  if  the  . 
impulse  given  to  the  screen  be  longitudinal,  the  clay  is  gradually 
carried  downwards  by  repeated  little  jumps  in  the  directicn  cf  vibra- 
tion. If  the  vibration  be  transverse,  the  clay  will  be  thrown  from 
side  to  side,  and  will  move  to  the  lower  end  of  the  screen  mere  slowly 
than  in  the  former  case.  Within  limits,  the  longer  the  time  required 
for  the  clay  to  pass  the  length  of  the  screen,  the  more  perfectly  will 
the  screening  be  accomplished,  and  in  all  instances  with  this  style  of 
screen,  the  maximum  size  of  the  particles  passing  it  is  approximately 
the  diameter  of  the  mesh.  It  is  recommended  in  the  use  of  this  class 
of  screen  that  sufficient  play  be  provided  in  the  vibrating  device 
that  a brief  pause  is  allowed  at  the  extremity  of  each  swing.  There 
should  be  provided  solid  blocks  or  posts,  against  which  the  screen 
is  brought  to  a sudden  stop  with  each  vibration.  The  repeated 
jar  thus  imparted  with  each  swing  is  very  effective  in  keeping  the  | 
meshes  open,  especially  if  the  clay  happens  to  be  damp.” 


* Beyer  and  Williams,  Geol.  Sur.  Iowa,  An.  Rept.  XIV,  1903,  p.  180. 


PROCESSES  OF  CLAY  MANUFACTURE. 


95 


Revolving  Screen. — The  revolving  screen  is  made  up  of  a large 
number  of  screen  plates  attached  at  the  ends  to  two  endless  chains. 
The  clay  is  delivered  from  a spout  upon  a spreading  table  from  which 
it  descends  to  the  screen.  As  the  screen  is  revolved,  the  screen 
plates  move  upward  to  meet  the  descending  clay.  The  fine  particles 
drop  through  the  perforations  in  the  plates,  while  the  larger  par- 
ticles pass  off  the  end  of  screen  below.  The  plates  are  kept  clean 
by  a metallic  brush-roller  which  is  attached  to  the  lower  side  of  the 
screen,  and  removes  the  clay  from  the  plates  as  they  are  brought 
beneath  the  frame. 

Eleven  plants  in  Mississippi,  out  of  a total  of  65  reporting,  use 
some  form  of  screen. 

TEMPERING. 

Clays  are  tempered  either  by  the  use  of  soak  pit,  ring  pit,  pug 
mills,  wet  pans  or  chasers. 

Soak  Pit. — The  soak  pit  is  employed  in  some  soft  mud  plants. 
The  pit  consists  of  an  excavation  of  rectangular  area,  into  which 
the  clay  is  thrown.  Some  pits  have  bare  walls,  others  are  provided 
with  plank  walls  and  bottom.  In  some  plants  four  or  five  of  these 
pits  are  located  along  a line  in  front  of  the  drying  shed  or  yard  and 
the  molding  mac  hine,  which  is  placed  upon  trucks,  is  moved  from  pit 
to  pit  as  the  clay  in  one  pit  is  exhausted.  The  time  required  for 
soaking  depends  on  the  texture,  and  the  slaking  power  of  the  clay. 
The  clay  is  usually  allowed  to  remain  in  the  pit  at  least  twelve  hours. 
In  case  it  is  to  be  used  for  hand  molding,  it  is  first  “slashed  out” 
with  a spade,  a process  of  mixing  by  hand  power.  If  the  clay  is  to 
be  used  in  machine  molding,  it  is  thrown  into  the  box  of  the  machine 
where  it  is  pugged  before  delivery  to  the  molds.  The  clay  and  what- 
ever non-plastic  material,  such  as  sand  or  sandy  clay,  is  necessary, 
is  placed  in  the  pit  and  then  wet  down  by  water  conducted  to  the 
pit  by  pipes  from  barrels,  wells  or  reservoirs.  There  are  not  many 
soak  pits  used  by  Mississippi  brick  plants.  Out  of  65  plants,  only 
6 use  the  soak  pit. 

Ring  Pit. — Ring  pits  are  of  two  types,  viz.;  those  operated  by 
horse  power  and  those  operated  by  steam  power.  They  are  similar 
in  form  and  general  make,  but  differ  in  size  and  capacity.  They 
vary  in  capacity  from  8,000  to  30,000  bricks.  The  pit  is  circular  in 


96 


CLAYS  OF  MISSISSIPPI. 


area  and  from  2 to  3 feet  in  depth.  The  mixer  consists  of  a beam 
bearing  a wheel,  the  former  being  attached  at  one  end  to  a pivotal 
stake  set  in  the  center  of  the  pit.  The  wheel,  which  is  constructed  of 
iron,  has  a diameter  of  about  six  feet.  As  the  sweep  is  moved  round 
the  ring,  the  wheel  revolves  on  the  beam  as  an  axis,  and  at  the  same 
time  moves  either  outward  to  the  periphery  or  inward  toward  the 
center  of  the  pit,  the  direction  being  determined  by  its  position  at 
the  start.  By  means  of  this  alternating  centripetal  and  centrifugal 
motion,  every  portion  of  the  pit  is  traversed  by  the  wheel  and  the 
clay  thoroughly  mixed. 

The  small  size  pit  having  a capacity  of  8,000  bricks  requires  a 
two-horse  team  for  operation.  The  time  required  for  tempering 
in  the  ring  pit  varies  with  the  clay  used.  The  residual  loess  clays 
may  be  tempered  in  from  two  to  three  hours.  These  clays,  however, 
slack  very  readily.  With  some  clays  it  is  necessary  to  use  ring  pits, 
so  that  the  clay  which  is  being  tempered  one  day  can  be  used  by  the 
molders  the  day  following. 

There  are  9 plants  out  of  65  reporting  which  use  the  ring  pit. 
These  are  all  operated  by  horse  power. 

Pwg  Mill. — Pug  mills  are  also  used  for  tempering  clay.  Nearly 
every  brick  machine  of  soft-mud  or  stiff-mud  type  contains  some 
provision  for  mixing  the  clay.  In  the  soft-mud  machine  of  the 
vertical  type,  the  clay  is  pugged  in  the  upper  part  of  the  machine, 
and  then  forced  below  into  the  molds.  In  the  steam-power  soft- 
mud  machine  a separate  pug  mill  is  employed.  This  consists  of  a 
semi -cylindrical  chamber,  open  at  the  top,  in  which  a horizontal 
shaft  revolves.  The  shaft  is  provided  with  blades  which  cut  up  the 
clay,  and  mix  it  thoroughly.  The  clay  enters  the  chamber  at  one 
end,  is  softened  with  water,  and  forced  by  the  revolving  blades 
toward  the  opposite  end  of  the  pug  mill,  where  it  is  discharged  into 
the  molding  chamber.  The  angle  at  which  the  blades  are  set  on  the 
shaft  determines  the  speed  at  which  the  clay  is  discharged.  For 
thorough  mixing  and  high  speed,  the  pug  mill  should  be  long,  so 
that  the  clay  may  come  in  contact  with  a large  number  of  blades. 
Ordinarily  pug  mills  vary  in  length  from  5 to  10  feet.  (See  Plates 
XIII  and  XV.) 

In  stiff-mud  machines,  sometimes  only  short  pugging  chambers 
are  in  direct  connection  with  the  molding  chamber,  and  the  clays  are 


WET  PAN 


PROCESSES  OF  CLAY  MANUFACTURE. 


97 


tempered  and  forced  through  the  die  by  the  revolutions  of  the  same 
shaft.  For  the  majority  of  clays  in  use  in  this  State,  this  form  of 
tempering  is  not  advisable  if  the  pugging  is  the  only  form  of  prepara- 
tion given  the  clay  before  molding.  In  many  plants  the  pug  mill 
is  the  only  crushing  machinery  used.  It  is  expected  not  only  to 
disintegrate  the  clay  but  to  mix  it  as  well.  This  cannot  be  accom- 
plished in  a small  pug  mill. 

Wet  Pan. — Wet  pans  are  circular  pans  in  which  a pair  of  heavy 
iron  wheels  travel.  The  clay  is  placed  in  the  pan,  softened  with 
water,  arid  crushed  and  mixed  by  the  movement  of  the  wheels 
between  the  bottom  of  the  pan  and  the  surface  of  the  wheels.  Wet 
pans  are  not  commonly  employed  in  brick  plants.  They  may  be 
employed  to  advantage  in  potteries  or  fire-brick  plants.  (See  Plate 
XIV.) 

The  “chaser”  used  in  some  potteries  consists  of  a wooden  or  iron 
wheel  which  revolves  in  a circular  path  on  a floor  and  crushes  and 
mixes  the  clay. 

TABLE  16. 

SUMMARY  OF  TEMPERING  MACHINERY  USED  IN  MISSISSIPPI  BRICK  PLANTS. 


Number  of  yards  using  soak  pits 6 

“ “ “ “ ring  pits 9 

“ “ “ “ separate  pug  mills 17 

“ “ “ “ wet  pans 0 

“ “ “ “ chasers 0 

“ “ “ “ no  separate  tempering  machinery 33 

Total  number  of  yards  reporting 65 


MOLDING. 


Clay  which  is  molded  into  brick  may  be  used  as  a soft  mud,  a 
stiff  mud,  as  dry  or  semi-dry  clay.  The  methods  of  molding  clays 
into  brick  may  be  classed  according  to  the  following  grouping: 


Soft -mud  process. 
Hand  molding. 
Machine  molding. 
Horse  power. 
Steam  power. 
Stiff-mud  process. 
Plunger  type  mac 
Auger  type  machi 


Repressing  brick. 
Dry  press  process. 
Hydraulic  power. 
Steam  power. 


98 


CLAYS  OF  MISSISSIPPI. 


In  some  plants  two  or  more  methods  of  molding  are  employed. 
They  may  manufacture  soft-mud  brick,  stiff-mud  brick  and  dry- 
pressed  brick.  Very  few  clays  are  adapted  to  all  methods  of  manu- 
facture. A sandy  type  of  clay  is  better  adapted  to  the  soft-mud 


FIGURE  7.  HORSE-POWER  SOFT-MUD  BRICK  MACHINE. 


process.  A more  plastic  clay  can  be  used  to  better  advantage  in  a 
stiff -mud  machine.  It  is  possible  in  many  clay  pits  to  secure  a 
variety  of  clays,  so  that  mixtures  may  be  made  which  will  permit 
the  use  of  all  three  methods  of  molding. 


Plate  XV. 


MAN| 


SOFT-MUD  BRICK  MACHINE  AND  PUG  MILL. 


PROCESSES  OF  CLAY  MANUFACTURE. 


99 


Soft-mad  Process. 

Hand  Molding. — The  tempered  clay  is  taken  from  the  soak  pit  or 
the  ring  pit  and  loaded  on  a wheelbarrow  by  the  use  of  a spade.  The 
wheelbarrow  is  then  run  to  the  molding  table,  which  usually  stands 
on  the  drying  floor.  The  drying  floor  is  a level  and  smooth  tract  of 
land  which  is  covered  with  a thin  coating  of  sand.  The  molding 
table  is  now  sprinkled  with  water  and  then  with  sand,  and  the  clay 
transferred  from  the  wheelbarrow  to  the  table.  The  off -bearer 
takes  a molding  frame  which  contains  six  molds,  and  dipping  it  first 
in  water  and  then  in  sand,  places  it  on  the  table  in  front  of  the  mclder. 
The  molder  takes  a mass  of  clay,  rolls  it,  and  kneads  it.  He  then 
drives  it  by  a sudden  downward  stroke  into  a mold.  This  is  repeated 
until  the  six  molds  are  filled.  The  clay  is  stroked  from  the  top  of 
the  mold  by  the  use  of  a wire  stretched  between  the  points  of  a bow. 
The  surplus  clay  cut  from  the  top  of  the  molds  is  called  “caps,”  and 
is  thrown  back  on  the  table  to  be  used  again. 

The  off-bearer  takes  the  molding  frames  and  empties  them  upon 
the  drying  floor.  After  drying  for  a few  hours  the  bricks  are  turned 
upon  edge,  a process  called  edging.  After  remaining  upon  the  drying 
floor  from  twelve  to  twenty-four  hours  the  bricks  are  laid  in  loose 
piles,  a process  called  “hacking.”  Hacking  the  output  of  the  pre- 
ceding day  allows  the  use  of  the  same  drying  floor  for  the  new  day’s 
run.  Then  it  makes  it  possible  better  to  protect  the  brick  from  rain, 
because  of  the  limited  space  which  they  now  occupy.  When  they 
are  piled  up  canvas  or  boards  may  be  used  to  cover  them. 

In  some  yards  the  molding  tables  are  moved  along  between  racks 
in  which  the  brick  are  placed  upon  pallets.  As  soon  as  the  sections 
on  each  side  of  the  table  are  filled  with  brick-loaded  pallets  the  table 
is  moved  to  the  next  section.  One  man  can  mold  8,000  bricks  in  a 
day  of  ten  hours,  but  in  most  plants  from  5,000  to  6,000  is  consid- 
ered a day’s  work.  In  one  plant  one  man  molds  and  places  in  the 
rack  6,000  bricks,  for  which  he  receives  $1.50  per  day. 

Machine  Molding— According  to  the  power  used  molding  ma- 
chines may  be  classed  as  horse-power  machines  and  steam-power 
machines.  The  horse-power  machine  consists  of  an  upright  rectan- 
gular box  in  which  a vertical  shaft  supplied  with  arms  turns  by 
means  of  a sweep.  The  sweep  is  attached  to  the  shaft  near  the  larger 


100 


CLAYS  OF  MISSISSIPPI. 


FIGURE  8. 


BRICK  MOLD  SANDING  MACHINE. 


PROCESSES  OF  CLAY  MANUFACTURE. 


101 


end  of  the  former,  the  projecting  heavy  end  of  the  sweep  being  used 
as  a counterpoise.  The  horses  are  hitched  to  the  small  end  of  the 
sweep  and  travel  in  a circular  path  around  the  machine. 

The  clay  is  thrown  into  the  opening  at  the  top  of  the  machine, 
and  after  being  thoroughly  mixed  or  pugged  by  the  arms  in  the 
upper  part  of  the  box,  is  worked  to  the  bottom  and  pressed  by  plung- 
ers located  near  the  bottom  of  the  shaft  into  the  molds.  The  molds 
are  generally  held  in  wooden  frames,  there  being  six  molds  to  a frame. 
The  molds  are  passed  under  the  machine  at  one  side,  become  filled 
fr  m the  press  box  and  are  taken  out  on  the  other.  By  moving  a 
lever  the  filled  frame  is  thrown  out  and  an  empty  one  inserted  beneath 
the  press  box.  They  may  not  be  completely  stroked  as  they  leave 
the  machine,  so  that  it  may  be  necessary  to  use  a wire  or  paddle  to 
remove  remaining  clay.  The  molds  are  first  dampened  and  then 
sanded.  The  use  of  the  sand  is  to  prevent  the  clay  from  sticking  to 
the  molds.  The  more  plastic  the  clay  the  more  tenaciously  it  clings 
to  the  molds.  The  molds  may  be  sanded  by  shoveling  sand  into 
the  molds,  shaking  it  about  and  then  tossing  it  out. 

The  mold -sander  is  a machine  constructed  for  the  purpose  of 
saving  labor  in  sanding  molds.  It  consists  of  a frame  which  rotates 
in  a cylinder.  The  molds  are  placed  in  the  frame,  and  by  the  rota- 
tion of  the  latter  the  molds  are  forced  through  a bed  of  sand  in  the 
bottom  of  the  cylinder. 

Some  of  the  soft-mud  horse-power  machines  are  placed  upon  low 
trucks  and  moved  from  soak  pit  to  soak  pit  as  the  clay  is  used.  Ma- 
chines of  the  horse-power  type  have  a capacity  of  from  8,000  to  15,000 
bricks  per  day  of  ten  hours.  Soft-mud  machines  of  steam  power 
have  a capacity  ranging  from  18,000  to  35,000  bricks  per  day.  For 
a machine  of  the  latter  capacity  five  men  and  three  boys  are  required 
at  the  machine.  Three  off -bearers  are  required  if  no  car  system  is 
used ; if  a car  system  is  used  one  off -bearer  can  handle  the  output  of 
the  machine. 

Indurated  clays  and  clays  of  high  plasticity  cannot  be  used  with 
economy  in  the  soft-mud  process.  In  this  State  only  the  sandy  type 
of  surface  clays  is  used.  The  residual  clay  covering  the  loess  is 
molded  in  a large  number  of  plants  by  the  soft-mud  process.  The 
Selma  residual  is  not  generally  successfully  used  in  the  soft-mud 
process  unless  there  is  considerable  sandy  clay  present  for  mixing. 


102 


CLAYS  OP  MISSISSIPPI. 


There  are  sometimes  nearby  deposits  of  Lafayette  which  may  be  used 
for  tempering  the  clay.  The  alluvial  clays  of  the  Yazoo  basin  have 
been  used  for  the  manufacture  of  soft-mud  brick.  The  sandy  type 
of  clays  is  best  adapted  to  the  soft-mud  process.  The  “buckshot” 
clays  adhere  to  the  mold,  shrink  excessively  and  are  difficult  to  pug. 


Stiff-mud  Process. 

The  machines  used  in  the  stiff-mud  process  of  molding  are  of  two 
types,  a vertical  machine,  in  which  the  clays  are  pressed  into  the 
molds  by  the  action  of  plungers,  and  an  auger  machine,  which  may 
be  either  vertical  or  horizontal. 

Plunger  T ype  Machine. — The  plunger  machine  is  provided  with  a 
revolving  wheel  which  contains  the  molds.  As  the  wheel  revolves 
clay  is  pressed  into  some  of  the  molds  by  descending  plungers,  then 
as  the  plungers  are  lifted,  the  bottom  of  the  mold  rises  and  forces  the 
molded  brick  out.  Thus  a portion  of  the  wheel  passes  under  the 
machine  and  a portion  is  in  the  open  and  forms  the  delivery  table. 
The  pugging  chamber  is  usually  directly  above  the  molds.  Just 
enough  water  is  added  to  the  clay  to  form  a stiff  mud.  The  molded 
brick  are  in  a condition  to  permit  handling  without  danger  of  much 
loss,  whereas  a soft -mud  brick  would  first  require  a certain  amount  of 
drying. 

Auger  Type  Machine. — In  the  vertical  auger  type  machine  the  clay 
is  forced  by  an  auger  to  the  base  of  the  machine.  From  this  point 
the  clay  is  forced  through  a rectangular  die.  The  size  of  this  die 
may  be  either  the  same  size  as  the  cross  section  of  a brick  or  the 
same  size  as  a horizontal  section,  The  clay  which  is  forced  through 
the  die  forms  a bar  of  clay  which  is  usually  strong  enough  to  retain 
its  shape  under  considerable  strain.  After  the  clay  is  tempered  it 
is  placed  in  the  small  pugging  chamber  in  which  there  turns  a vertical 
shaft.  At  the  top  this  shaft  is  provided  with  small  blades  for  pug- 
ging the  clay.  The  lower  part  of  the  shaft  is  provided  with  an  auger, 
which  catches  the  clay  forced  downward  by  the  pugging  blades,  and 
presses  it  through  the  die.  The  friction  of  the  bar  of  clay  against  the 
die  may  cause  the  edges  of  the  bar  to  break  and  curl,  forming  serra- 
tions. The  clay  may  lack  cohesive  power,  in  which  case  more 
bonding  material  should  be  added. 


104 


CLAYS  OF  MISSISSIPPI. 


Various  substances  are  employed  to  decrease  the  amount  of  fric- 
tion between  the  steel  die  and  the  clay  bar.  Steam  under  high 
pressure  may  be  forced  in  around  the  bar  in  the  die.  Kerosene  or 
lubricating  oil  is  often  employed  as  a lubricant  in  some  plants  and 
soap  suds  in  others.  The  surface  of  the  bar  is  sometimes  coated 
with  sand  as  it  leaves  the  die,  to  facilitate  handling  and  hacking 
without  injury. 

The  spiral  motion  of  the  auger,  the  friction  of  the  clay  against 
the  surface  of  the  auger,  producing  smooth  clay  surfaces,  and  the 
differential  velocities  in  the  bar  of  clay  produced  by  friction  of  the 
die,  all  cause  laminations  in  the  clay. 

In  the  horizontal  auger  type  of  stiff -mud  machine  a horizontal 
shaft  works  in  a cylindrical  pugging  chamber,  and  supports  at  the 
end  opposite  the  die  short  blades  which  pug  the  clay  and  force  it  to 
the  auger,  by  which  it  is  in  turn  forced  through  the  die. 

In  the  multiple-bar  type  there  are  two  or  more  dies  through  which 
the  clay  is  forced,  thus  forming  as  many  parallel  bars  of  clay. 

As  the  clay  issues  from  the  die  it  is  carried  by  a belt  across  the 
cutting  table,  where  it  is  cut  into  bricks.  The  cutters  are  either 
“side-cut”  or  “end-cut.”  Where  the  side-cut  is  employed  the 
width  of  the  bar  is  the  length  of  the  brick,  and  where  the  end-cut 
is  employed  the  width  of  the  bar  is  the  width  of  the  brick. 

The  cut  surface  of  the  brick  in  the  former  is  on  the  side  of  the 
brick,  in  the  latter  on  the  end  of  the  brick.  Side-cut  brick  dry  more 
rapidly  than  end-cut  brick,  because  of  the  greater  area  of  cut  surface 
which  is  more  porous  than  the  die-puddled  surface. 

Some  cutters  are  operated  by  hand,  others  are  automatic.  There 
are  two  automatic  side  cutters  in  general  use.  One  is  the  rotary, 
consisting  of  a wheel  provided  with  wire  spokes.  By  the  rotation 
of  the  wheel  these  wires  are  passed  through  the  bar  of  clay  at  regular 
intervals,  the  movement  of  the  bar  being  co-ordinated  with  the  rota- 
tion of  the  wheel.  The  other  side  cutter  is  the  oscillating,  reciprocal 
cutter,  which  consists  of  a frame  between  the  projecting  points  of 
which  wires  are  stretched.  The  wires  are  separated  by  the  thickness 
of  a brick.  These  wires,  by  a lateral  or  downward  movement,  are 
forced  through  the  bar.  During  the  time  of  cutting  the  bar  is  mov- 
ing forward  and  the  cutter  has  a reciprocal  movement. 


PROCESSES  OF  CLAY  MANUFACTURE. 


105 


The  end  cutter  consists  of  a revolving  wheel,  the  spokes  of  which 
are  bifurcate  near  the  ends,  having  wires  stretched  between  the  points 
of  the  bifurcations.  As  the  wheel  revolves  the  wires  are  forced 
through  the  bar  of  clay  cutting  it  into  brick  lengths. 

As  the  bricks  leave  the  cutter  they  are  caught  by  the  off -bearing 
belt,  which  moves  at  a greater  velocity  than  the  bar  of  clay,  and 
soon  separates  the  brick.  The  brick  are  taken  from  the  off-bearing 
belt  and  placed  upon  cars  or  pallets  for  transportation  to  the  dryer. 

Repressing  Brick. 

Stiff-mud  brick  or  soft-mud  brick  after  molding  are  often  pressed 
in  a machine  called  the  “repress.”  The  repress  consists  of  a steel 
mold  box  into  which  the  brick  are  placed  and  subjected  to  strong 
pressure.  The  hand  repress  (see  Fig.  10)  consists  of  a heavy  iron 
frame  supporting  a steel  mold  box,  which  is  provided  with  a remov- 
able top  and  a movable  bottom  plate,  which  is  forced  upward  against 
the  brick  in  the  mold.  The  pressure  exerted  by  the  movable  bot- 
tom (plunger)  is  obtained  by  throwing  back  the  lever.  When  the 
top  is  removed  and  the  lever  thrown  back,  the  repressed  brick  is 
forced  to  the  top  of  the  mold.  These  represses  have  a weight  of 
from  700  to  900  pounds  and  a capacity  of  from  2,000  to  3,000  brick 
per  day. 

The  larger  represses  are  operated  by  steam  (see  Plate  XVIII). 
They  generally  have  two  molds  and  have  a capacity  of  from  10,000 
to  25,000  brick  per  day.  They  vary  in  weight  from  5,000  to  9,000 
pounds  and  exert  a pressure  of  4,000  or  5,000  pounds  per  square 
inch.  The  pressure  may  be  applied  by  plungers  from  above  or  by 
plungers  both  above  and  below. 

The  brick  from  a stiff-mud  machine  may  be  taken  immediately 
to  the  repress.  Soft-mud  brick  must  dry  to  about  the  consistency 
of  stiff-mud  brick  before  repressing.  There  is  an  advantage  to  be 
gained  in  allowing  stiff-mud  brick  to  dry  a little  before  repressing, 
as  in  that  case  defects  of  drying  may  be  partly  obliterated. 

The  principal  things  to  be  gained  by  repressing  are:  (1)  An  in- 
crease in  the  density  of  the  brick.  The  clay  particles  are  brought 
closer  together  and  their  union  is  more  perfect.  This  diminishes  the 
porosity  of  the  brick  and  decreases  its  absorption  power.  (2)  A 
partial  destruction  of  laminations  and  serrations.  Stiff-mud  brick 


CLAYS  OF  MISSISSIPPI 


FIGURE  10.  HAND-POWER  REPRESS  BRICK  MACHINE. 


PROCESSES  OF  CLAY  MANUFACTURE. 


107 


are  often  serrated  on  the  edges.  The  auger  also  produces  a lami- 
nated structure.  Both  of  these  structures  may  be  at  least  partly 
obliterated  by  repressing.  (3)  The  surfaces  of  wire  cut  brick  are 
often  rough.  This  roughness  may  be  destroyed  and  the  surface  of 
the  brick  made  smooth  by  repressing.  (4)  The  form  of  the  brick 
may  be  improved  by  repressing  and  its  strength  increased.  The 
edges  of  the  brick  which  may  have  been  rounded  in  the  die  are  shaped. 
Indentations  are  removed.  (5)  Any  desired  name,  design  or  mark 
may  be  imprinted  on  the  surface  of  the  brick. 


FIGURE  11.  SIX-MOLD  DRY-PRESS  BRICK  MACHINE. 


Dry-press  Process. 

In  the  dry-press  process  the  clay  is  first  reduced  to  a powder  in 
a disintegrator  or  pulverizer.  It  is  then  screened  to  remove  all 
particles  larger  than  one-sixteenth  of  an  inch  in  diameter.  The  air- 
dried  clay  is  then  pressed  into  molds  with  a pressure  sufficient  to  cause 
the  particles  to  adhere  so  firmly  that  the  brick  may  undergo  without 
crumbling  all  of  the  handling  that  raw  clay  brick  usually  have  to 
endure.  The  dry -press  machine  (see  Figure  11)  consists  of  a heavy 
steel  frame  containing  a press  box  and  a delivery  table.  The  molds 


108 


CLAYS  OF  MISSISSIPPI. 


(usually  four  to  six)  are  filled  with  clay  by  a charger  which  is  con- 
nected with  the  clay  hopper  by  a canvas  tube.  When  filled  with 
clay  the  charger  glides  forward  over  the  molds,  filling  them  with 
clay.  Then  as  the  charger  returns  to  be  refilled  the  plunger  descends 
and  forces  the  clay  into  the  mold.  At  the  same  time  the  bottom 
of  the  molds  are  pressed  upward  and  thus  the  clay  is  subjected  to  two 
pressure  movements.  As  the  plunger  rises  the  bottom  of  the  molds 
continues  to  come  up,  thus  forcing  the  brick  out  of  the  molds  to  a 
level  with  the  surface  of  the  delivery  table  upon  which  they  are 
pushed  by  the  next  forward  movement  of  the  charger.  The  surfaces 
of  the  molds  are  heated  by  steam  in  order  to  prevent  the  clay  from 
sticking.  To  prevent  the  imprisonment  of  air  in  the  brick,  holes  are 
made  in  the  press  plates  to  allow  its  escape. 

The  clay  used  by  the  dry  -press  machine  is  generally  placed  in  a 
storage  shed  and  allowed  to  mellow  for  a few  weeks,  or  in  some  plants 
months  before  it  is  used.  Under  the  mellowing  process  capillary 
moisture  becomes  more  thoroughly  distributed,  the  clay  lumps  are 
softened  and  the  reduction  to  the  powdered  state  rendered  easier. 
In  case  two  or  more  kinds  of  clay  are  used,  the  mixing  may  be  done 
thoroughly  by  placing  them  in  the  storing  shed  in  successive  layers. 
In  using  the  clay  a vertical  section  of  the  deposit  is  taken.  Storing 
a large  quantity  of  clay  in  the  shed  during  favorable  weather  makes 
it  possible  for  the  plant  to  continue  operations  during  unfavorable 
weather  periods.  The  dry  pressed  brick  may  be  taken  directly  from 
the  press  and  placed  in  the  kiln.  The  expense  of  drying  is  avoided. 
Because,  however,  of  the  density  of  the  brick  the  water-smoking 
period  is  longer  than  in  the  soft -mud  or  the  stiff-mud  brick. 

TABLE  17. 

METHODS  OF  MOLDING  MISSISSIPPI  BRICK. 


1.  By  soft  mud  process. 

a.  Number  of  plants  using  hand  power 11 

b.  “ “ “ “ horse  power 2 

c.  “ “ “ steam  power 7 

2.  By  stiff  mud  process. 

a.  Auger  type,  end  cut,  single  die 19 

b.  “ “ “ “ double  die 2 

c.  “ “ side  cut,  single  die 6 

d.  Plunger,  vertical  type 7 

3.  By  dry-press  process 11 


Total 


65 


Plate  XVI. 


CLAY  DISINTEGRATOR. 


PROCESSES  OF  CLAY  MANUFACTURE. 


109 


DRYING. 

When  brick  are  brought  from  the  molding  machine  they  contain 
the  water  necessary  for  tempering  the  clay.  Before  they  can  be 
burned  this  water  must  be  removed.  It  must  be  removed  so  grad- 
ually as  not  to  impair  the  strength  or  appearance  of  the  brick.  This 
process  of  water  removal  is  called  drying.  In  the  following  pages 
are  presented  some  of  the  fundamental  facts  upon  which  the  removal 
of  water  from  clay  is  dependent. 

Principles  of  Drying. 

Humidity  is  the  condition  of  the  atmosphere  with  respect  to  its 
water-vapor  content.  The  total  amount  of  moisture  that  the  air  is 
capable  of  containing  at  any  given  temperature  constitutes  the 
capacity  of  the  air  at  that  temperature.  The  capacity  of  the  air  varies 
with  the  temperature.  The  air  is  said  to  be  saturated  when  the 
amount  of  water  vapor  which  it  contains  is  equal  to  its  capacity. 
The  amount  of  moisture  actually  present  in  the  atmosphere  is  termed 
its  absolute  humidity.  The  relative  humidity  is  the  ratio  of  the 
absolute  humidity  to  the  capacity  of  the  atmosphere.  For  example, 
air  at  a temperature  of  50°  F.  has  a capacity  of  4 grains  per  cubic 
foot.  Suppose,  however,  the  air  at  this  temperature  contained  but 
2 grains  of  moisture  per  cubic  foot.  The'  absolute  humidity  of  the 
air  is  2 grains  per  cubic  foot  and  its  relative  humidity  is  the  ratio 
which  2 grains  (absolute  humidity)  bears  to  4 grains  (capacity), 
which  is  one-half  or  50  per  cent.  Air  which  has  a relative  humidity 
as  high  as  80  per  cent  is  considered  moist  air.  If  the  relative  humidity 
is  below  50  per  cent  the  air  is  called  dry  air,  and  its  humidity  is  low. 

The  capacity  of  the  air  depends  upon  its  temperature.  The 
higher  the  temperature  of  the  air  the  more  moisture  it  can  contain. 
Air  at  a low  temperature  might  be  considered  damp  though  it  con- 
tains just  the  same  amount  of  moisture  as  air  which,  at  a higher  tem- 
perature, would  be  considered  dry. 

For  example,  air  at  50°  F.  has  a capacity  of  4 grains  per  cubic 
foot.  Now,  if  the  air  at  that  temperature  contained  3 grains  per 
cubic  foot  it  would  be  considered  moist  air,  since  its  relative  humidity 
is  75  per  cent.  Now  let  the  same  air  be  raised  to  a temperature  of 
100°  F.,  and  it  now  has  the  capacity  of  approximately  20  grains. 


110 


CLAYS  OF  MISSISSIPPI. 


But  the  relative  humidity  is  now  only  15  per  cent,  and  it  is  an  exceed- 
ingly dry  air. 

Water  is  lost  from  a wet  body  by  evaporation.  Evaporation  is 
the  transfer  of  moisture  from  one  area  to  a less  humid  area.  Such 
transference  does  not  take  place  between  two  saturated  bodies,  but 
between  a saturated  body  and  a non-saturated  body.  Water  may 
pass  from  a wet  surface  to  the  surrounding  air,  provided  the  air  is 
not  saturated.  Evaporation  is  produced  through  the  vibration  of 
molecules,  which  causes  some  of  those  at  the  surface  to  fly  off  into 
space.  The  vibration  of  the  molecules  is  produced  by  heat,  and 
the  higher  the  temperature  of  the  water  the  more  rapidly  the  mole- 
cules separate.  Evaporation  takes  place  from  the  surface  of  ice, 
but  it  takes  place  much  more  rapidly  from  the  surface  of  water  at 
the  boiling  point.  At  this  point  the  vapor  tension  is  equal  to  the 
pressure  of  the  atmosphere  which  it  will  displace. 

At  the  point  of  evaporation  water  assumes  the  form  of  a gas,  and 
expands  to  1,700  times  its  liquid  volume.  When  the  surrounding 
air  contains  all  of  the  vapor  it  can  hold  it  is  saturated.  The  point 
of  saturation  depends  on  the  temperature  of  the  vapor. 


TABLE  18. 

NUMBER  OF  GRAINS  OF  SATURATED  WATER  VAPOR  IN  A CUBIC 
FOOT  AT  VARIOUS  TEMPERATURES. 


10° 

.776 

34° 

2.279 

58° 

5.370 

82° 

11.626 

12° 

.856 

36° 

2.457 

60° 

5.745 

84° 

12.356 

14° 

.941 

38° 

2.646 

62° 

6.142 

86° 

13.127 

16° 

1.032 

40° 

2.849 

64° 

6.563 

88° 

13.937 

18° 

1.128 

42° 

3.064 

66° 

7.009 

90° 

14.790 

20° 

1.235 

44° 

3.294 

68° 

7.480 

92° 

15.689 

22° 

1.355 

46° 

3.539 

70° 

7.980 

94° 

16.634 

24° 

1.483 

48° 

3.800 

72° 

8.508 

96° 

17.626 

26° 

1.623 

50° 

4.076 

74° 

9.066 

98° 

18.671 

28° 

1.773 

52° 

4.372 

76° 

9.655 

100° 

19.766 

30° 

1.935 

54° 

4.685 

78° 

10.277 

102° 

20.917 

32° 

2.113 

56° 

5.016 

80° 

10.934 

104° 

22.125 

Water  evaporates  more  rapidly  into  a vacuum  than  into  space 
filled  with  air,  but  at  a given  temperature  the  same  quantity  of  water 
will  evaporate  into  each.  A mixture  of  air  and  water  vapor  has  a 
greater  expansive  power  than  air  alone.  If  to  a cubic  foot  of  dry 
air  weighing  516  grains  at  a temperature  of  80°  F.,  11  grains  of  water 
vapor  be  added  by  evaporation,  the  whole  mixture  will  weigh  but 
510  grains.  Then  its  density  is  less  than  the  original  air. 


Plate  XVH 


ROTARY  AUTOMATIC  BRICK  CUTTER, 


PROCESSES  OF  CLAY  MANUFACTURE. 


Ill 


Brick  are  dried  by  evaporation  of  water  which  they  contain. 
When  taken  from  the  mold,  brick  contains  water  in  two  forms,  viz., 
the  water  which  has  been  added  for  tempering,  and  hygroscopic 
moisture.  The  former  passes  readily  from  the  clay  at  ordinary 
temperature;  the  latter  can  only  be  expelled  at  the  temperature  of 
boiling  water.  It  is  the  water  which  is  absorbed  from  the  atmos- 
phere, and  is  present  in  all  clays  except  those  kept  in  absolutely  dry 
air,  and  is  the  water  which  is  removed  from  brick  in  the  process  of 
water-smoking. 

The  object  to  be  obtained  in  drying  brick  is  the  economical  and 
rapid  removal  of  water  without  impairing  in  any  way  the  quality 
of  the  brick.  The  tenacity  with  which  moisture  is  held  by  clays 
varies.  As  a rule  the  finer  the  grain  of  the  clay  constituents,  the 
more  slowly  it  gives  up  its  water.  Since  clay  is  as  a rule  finer  in 
grain  than  sand,  the  higher  the  amount  of  clay  the  greater  the  diffi- 
culty of  drying.  Since  plasticity  is  affected  by  these  conditions, 
the  higher  the  degree  of  plasticity  the  more  difficulty  encountered 
in  drying.  A very  sandy  clay  will  dry  rapidly,  but  it  may  be  weak 
because  of  the  small  amount  of  bonding  material.  When  the  brick 
are  taken  from  the  machine,  they  have  the  same  temperature  as  the 
surrounding  atmosphere.  If  they  are  put  in  a dryer  which  has  a 
higher  temperature,  they  begin  to  lose  moisture  rapidly  as  the  tem- 
perature of  the  dryer  is  raised.  But  since  clay  absorbes  heat  slowly, 
if  the  temperature  of  the  dryer  is  too  high,  the  outside  of  the  brick 
may  become  dry  before  the  inside  becomes  hot.  This  produces 
differential  shrinkage,  the  outside  of  the  brick  contracting  more 
than  the  inside.  The  results  of  such  differential  contraction  is  the 
cracking  or  checking  of  the  brick.  The  more  plastic  the  clay,  the  more 
care  must  be  exercised  in  drying.  The  remedy  lies  in  the  very  gradual 
increase  in  the  temperature  of  the  brick. 

In  many  of  the  steam  dryers  now  in  use,  a “dead  chamber”  is 
used  for  heating  the  brick  to  the  temperature  of  the  first  chamber 
of  the  dryer.  The  “dead  chamber”  is  a closed  division  of  the  dryer 
into  which  steam  is  turned,  there  being  no  means  of  circulation,  or  at 
least  very  little.  The  brick  do  not  dry,  but  become  heated  thoroughly 
by  the  steam.  When  they  reach  the  temperature  of  the  air  at  the 
beginning  of  the  dryer,  they  are  run  into  the  first  chamber  of  the 
dryer,  and  are  then  in  a condition  to  pass  through  the  dryer  rapidly. 


112 


CLAYS  OF  MISSISSIPPI. 


Since  air  is  the  medium  through  which  the  water  is  removed 
from  brick,  the  drier  the  air  used  the  greater  its  drying  capacity. 
The  air  used  in  an  artificial  dryer  must  be  taken  from  the  atmosphere, 
therefore,  the  amount  of  moisture  that  enters  a dryer  on  a given  day 
will  depend  on  the  humidity  of  the  atmosphere.  Beyer  and  Williams* 
make  a calculation  of  the  amount  of  heat  necessary  to  evaporate 
the  water  contained  in  1,000  brick.  The  subject  is  treated  as  follows: 
“Clays  vary  a great  deal  in  the  quantity  of  water  required  for  tem- 
pering. Since  tempering  water  only  is  removed  in  the  dryer,  the 
amount  which  it  is  necessary  to  evaporate  in  drying  also  varies.  As 
an  average,  it  may  be  said  that  clays  worked  by  the  plastic  process 
contain  22  per  cent  of  water.  For  one  thousand  brick,  this  means 
in  the  neighborhood  of  1,700  pounds  of  water  to  evaporate  in  drying. 
A dryer  tunnel  containing  twelve  cars  each  loaded  with  five  hundred 
standard  bricks  must  pass  enough  air  to  carry  out  over  five  tons  of 
water  frf>m  these  brick.  It  thus  becomes  a problem  for  investigation 
to  determine  for  a given  dryer  the  most  saving  conditions  under 
which  this  water  can  be  removed. 

“In  open  air  drying,  the  currents  of  air  which  carry  away  the 
water  are  warmed  by  the  sun’s  heat.  The  specific  heat  of  air  is 
.2374.  A cubic  meter  (1 .308  cu.  yds.)  of  air  weighs  1 .293  kilograms 
at  0°C.  and  760  mm.  barometric  pressure.  The  heat  contents  of 
each  cubic  meter  of  air  at  zero  degrees  is,  therefore,  1.293  times 
.237=  .306  kilogram  calories.  At  any  higher  degree,  its  contained 
heat  would  be,  L29- t,mes  \ in  which  a is  the  coefficient  of 
expansion  = .00367  and  t the  observed  temperature.  If  we  assume 
an  average  summer  heat  of  16  C.  (most  out  of  door  drying  being 
done  in  the  summer),  it  is  seen  by  the  formula  that  the  heat  content 
of  a cubic  meter  of  air  is  4 . 631  units,  which  shows  an  average  of 
essentially  .3  heat  units  for  each  degree  of  temperature.  These 
heat  units  are  taken  up  as  latent  heat  by  the  water  in  drying  and  as  a 
consequence  the  temperature  of  the  air  is  lowered.  This  means 
that  for  every  degree  the  air  is  cooled,  it  loses  .3  of  a unit  of  heat. 
The  measurable  heat  of  water  and  the  latent  heat  of  water  vapor 
formed  at  ordinary  temperatures  may  be  taken  as  611  heat  units, 
i.  e.,  to  evaporate  one  kilogram  of  water  at  16  C.  requires  611  heat 
units;  .3  units,  therefore,  (3 gms-)  will  evaporate  at  this 
temperature  only  .491  of  a gram. 


*Iowa  Survey,  Pages  239—243,  Rept.  for  1903. 


STEAM-POWER  DOUBLE-MOLD  BRICK  REPRESS, 


PROCESSES  OF  CLAY  MANUFACTURE. 


113 


“We  have  already  assumed  an  average  of  1,700  pounds  (772  + 
kgms.)  of  water  per  thousand  brick.  To  evaporate  772  kilograms 
of  water  requires  611  times  772  = 471,692  heat  units.  To  dry  a 
thousand  brick,  therefore,  with  air  at  ordinary  temperature,  requires 
that  1,572,301  (772,000+. 491)  cubic  meters  of  air  lower  one  degree  in 
temperature  to  furnish  the  required  amount  of  energy.  Or,  where 
the  air  is  somewhat  confined  as  in  drying  sheds  so  that  it  may  remain 
in  contact  with  the  wet  ware  for  some  time,  the  same  evaporative 
power  would  be  possessed  by  one-half  the  volume  lowering  two  degrees, 
or  by  one-tenth  lowering  ten  degrees  and  so  on. 

“Whether  or  not  drying  actually  approaches  in  efficiency  these 
theoretical  figures  depends  largely  on  the  humidity  of  the  air.  Air 
near  its  saturation  point  gives  up  its  heat  much  less  readily  and  will 
consequently  take  up  water  more  slowly  than  comparatively  dry 
air.  Rapidity  of  movement  of  the  currents  of  air  also  influence 
their  drying  capacity.  As  a general  thing,  very  little  change  of 
temperature  is  ever’actually  noticed  in  outside  drying,  but  the  drying 
depends  largely  on  the  air  circulation.  The  more  rapidly  this  takes 
place,  the  more  air  is  brought  in  contact  with  the  clay  and  conse- 
quently drying  progresses  more  speedily. 

“In  closed  chamber  dryers  the  conditions  are  different  from  those 
discussed  in  several  particulars.  The  air  no  longer  circulates  of 
itself  but  a draft  must  be  produced  to  move  it.  The  heat  for  drying 
is  not  contained  in  the  air  as  it  enters  from  the  outside,  but  must  be 
supplied  to  it  artificially.  Both  movement  of  the  air  and  heating 
it  requires  the  expenditure  of  energy  which  is  not  necessary  in  out  of 
door  drying.  Of  the  heat  supplied  to  the  air,  it  is  clear  that  not  all 
is  utilized  in  the  evaporation  of  water;  for  this  air  leaves  the  dryer 
at  a higher  temperature  than  it  enters,  thus  carrying  out  considerable 
quantities  of  sensible  heat.  Likewise,  the  brick  enter  the  dryer  at 
atmospheric  temperatures  and  leave  it  at  much  higher  temperatures. 
These  are  the  chief  sources  of  waste  of  heat  in  the  dryer  and  are  in 
turn  briefly  treated. 

“On  leaving  a drying  chamber,  one  cubic  meter  of  vapor-saturated 
air  at  30°  C.  consists  of  . 958  cubic  meter  of  dry  air  and  . 042  of  water 
vapor  ( 76o  ‘ ),  where  31.6  is  the  tension  of  aqueous  vapor. 

“The  .958  cubic  meter  of  dry  air  can  hold  the  following  heat 
units : = 7.935  heat  units. 


114 


CLAYS  OF  MISSISSIPPI. 


“When  this  same  dry  air  entered  the  dryer  at,  say,  10°  C.,  it  had 
a volume  of 

r+700367^30-10) = -893  cubic  meters. 

“This  volume  of  air  could  carry  as  it  came  into  the  dryer 

1.293 X. 893 X.237X  10°  _ o co n i 4, 

i+. oo367xio — = 2 • heat  units. 

“The  amount  of  heat  taken  out  of  the  dryer,  therefore,  in  each 
cubic  meter  of  air  under  the  assumed  conditions  is  7.935 — 2.639 
= 5 . 296  heat  units. 

“The  above  result  is  obtained  on'the  assumption  that  the  air  on 
issuing  from  the  dryer  is  completely  saturated.  This  is  seldom  if 
ever  true.  Its  degree  of  saturation  or  relative  humidity  may  be 
ascertained  in  any  instance  and  the  value  used  in  the  formula.  As- 
suming for  example  that  the  outgoing  air  is  but  half  saturated, 
which  is  ordinarily  more  nearly  the  case,  similar  calculations  to  the 
above  will  show  that  at  30°  C.  8,108  heat  units  will  be  carried  out 
per  cubic  meter  of  saturated  air.  At  10°  the  same  air  carries  in 
2.696,  making  a loss  in  this  case  of  5.412  heat  units.  If  each  cubic 
meter  passing  through  the  dryer  causes  a loss  of  5.412  units  of  heat, 
the  total  loss  per  each  thousand  brick  is  56,610  heat  units. 

“In  the  same  manner  may  be  calculated  the  loss  of  heat  incurred 
by  bringing  the  air  into,  and  removing  it  from,  the  dryer  at  any 
observed  temperatures. 

“We  have  seen  that  at  these  low  temperatures  611  heat  units 
are  required  for  the  evaporation  of  each  kilogram  of  water.  As 
has  been  shown,  to  remove  the  water  from  1,000  brick  (772  kgms.) 
requires  471,692  heat  units.  And  since  each  cubic  meter  of  air  at 
the  highest  temperature,  30°  C.,  can  evaporate  13.55  grams  of  water, 
to  dry  1,000  brick  takes  772X13.55  or  10,460 +cubic  meters  of  air. 

“Seger  gives  the  following  formulae  for  the  calculation  of  the 
capacity  of  chimneys.  In  their  practical  application  these  expres- 
sions may  be  used  for  determining  the  dimensions  of  a stack  for 
circulating  an  amount  of  air,  at  the  temperatures  of  operation,  which 
is  found  necessary  to  remove  the  water  from  a given  amount  of  clay 
in  the  time  required  to  dry  it. 

“V=628  = velocity  of  air  in  meters  per  minute  and, 

1 fV  = 3-14*6d~y  = volume  of  air  in  cubic  meters  per  minute. 


PROCESSES  OF  CLAY  MANUFACTURE 


115 


steei/'rack  car  for  transporting  brick  on  pallets. 


FIGURE  12. 


116 


CLAYS  OF  MISSISSIPPI. 


“In  these  formulae: 

“t — t1=the  temperature  difference  between  the  shaft  of  the 
chimney  and  the  outside  air, 

'“d  = the  diameter  of  the  chimney  at  its  mouth, 

“h  = the  height. 

“The  clay  as  it  enters  the  drying  chamber  has  the  temperature 
of  the  atmosphere  and  as  it  leaves  carries  out  considerable  quantities 
of  sensible  heat.  The  specific  heat  of  clay  is  about  .2.  The  heat 
carried  out  is  calculated  by  the  weight  of  the  ware,  or,  M,  multiplied 
by  .2  (t — t1)  where  t — t1  = difference  in  temperature  of  the  brick  at 
entrance  and  exit.  One  thousand  brick  contain  on  an  average 
7,700  pounds,  3,500  kilograms,  of  dry  clay.  Under  the  conditions 
assumed  above,  3,500X  .2  (30 — 10)  14,000  heat  units  per  thousand 
brick. 

“We  have  now  obtained  the  amount  of  heat  used  in  the  evapora- 
tion of  water  from  1,000  brick,  471,692  heat  units;  that  taken  out  as 
sensible  heat  in  the  escaping  half-saturated  air,  56,110,  and  the  heat 
dissipated  by  the  clay  itself,  14,000  heat  units.  Total  energy  necessary 
to  dry  1,000  brick,  neglecting  radiation,  is,  therefore,  542,302  units 
of  heat. 

“This  energy  is  supplied  in  artificial  dryers  by  the  combustion 
of  fuel.  The  average  Iowa  coal  furnishes  6,700  heat  units  per  kilo- 
gram. To  dry  a thousand  brick  requires  the  consumption,  therefore, 
of,  in  round  numbers,  81  kilograms,  or  178  pounds  of  coal. 

“By  carrying  out  similar  calculations  to  the  above  for  a range  of 
temperatures  and  different  degrees  of  humidity,  it  may  be  shown 
that  (1)  economy  can  never  be  obtained  unless  the  air  is  removed 
very  nearly  saturated.  The  rule  in  this  regard  is,  therefore,  to 
remove  the  air  only  after  it  has  taken  up  practically  all  the  water 
vapor  it  can  hold,  and  before  dew  is  deposited.  (2)  Economical 
drying  in  closed  compartments  can  be  had  only  at  temperatures 
above  50°  C.  (122°  F.),  and  below  100°  C.  (212°  F.),  when  the  air  is 
removed  as  nearly  saturated  as  possible.  The  amount  of  heat  carried 
out  by  the  air  rises  rapidly  as  the  humidity  decreases;  and  as  the 
temperature  of  drying  is  lowered  the  ratio  of  heat  loss  to  that  actually 
used  in  the  evaporation  of  water  increases  rapidly.” 


PROCESSES  OF  CLAY  MANUFACTURE. 


117 


Methods  of  Drying  Brick. 

Brick  dryers  may  be  classed  as  open  air  dryers,  and  artificial 
dryers.  The  former  may  be  further  subdivided  into  (a)  open  yard 
dryers,  ( b ) rack  and  pallet  dryers,  and  (c)  shed  and  hack  dryers. 
The  latter  may  be  classed  as  (a)  hot  floor  dryers,  (b)  chamber  dryers, 
and  (c)  continuous  tunnel  dryers. 

Open  Yard  Dryer.— This  system  of  drying  is  used  in  soft-mud 
plants.  The  brick  are  placed  on  pallets  from  the  mold.  The  loaded 
pallets  are  taken  by  the  off -bearer  to  a sanded,  open  yard  where 
they  are  emptied  by  inverting  them.  After  drying  a little,  the  brick 
are  placed  on  edge  to  allow  both  sides  of  the  brick  to  dry  equally, 
and  to  prevent  cracking  of  the  upper  surface  due  to  unequal  drying. 
After  drying  from  12  to  24  hours,  the  brick  are  hacked  on  the  yard 
until  the  air  drying  is  complete.  The  hacking  makes  it  possible  to 
handle  a larger  number  of  brick  per  yard,  and  at  the  same  time  makes 
it  possible  to  more  easily  protect  the  brick  in  case  of  rain.  The 
principal  objections  to  this  system  of  drying  arise  from  the  great 
amount  of  labor  required  to  handle  the  brick,  and  the  high  per  cent 
of  loss  sustained  in  inclement  weather.  The  source  of  energy  for  the 
evaporation  of  the  water  is  from  the  sun.  There  is  no  means  of 
controlling  the  form  of  energy  in  the  open  yard.  And  it  is  impossible 
to  control  the  circulation  of  the  air  and  thus  check  the  removal  of 
moisture. 

Rack  and  Pallet  Dryer. — This  system  is  used  for  both  soft-mud 
and  stiff-mud  brick.  The  racks  are  covered  with  A-shaped  roofs 
and  generally  open  at  the  sides  and  the  ends.  Some,  however,  are 
provided  with  temporary  walls  consisting  of  movable  plank,  canvas, 
or  burlap.  Soft-mud  brick  are  placed  on  pallets.  Each  pallet  holds 
one  mold  full  of  brick,  usually  six.  Where  the  brick  are  molded 
by  hand,  it  is  the  practice  to  move  the  molding  table  along  between 
the  racks,  filling  them  section  by  section. 

Where  a machine  is  used  for  molding,  the  brick  are  carried  by 
hand,  wheelbarrow  or  car  to  the  racks.  In  some  yards  a rack  car  is 
used,  and  the  loaded  pallets  are  transferred  from  the  car  to  the  racks 
by  an  elevating  movement  of  the  car. 

Usually  in  stiff -mud  plants,  the  brick  are  packed  upon  large 
pallets  as  they  are  taken  from  the  table.  The  pallets  contain  from 


118 


CLAYS  OF  MISSISSIPPI. 


200  to  500  bricks.  These  pallets  are  transferred  by  elevating  cars 
to  racks  or  to  sheds  as  the  case  may  be.  Considerable  loss  may  be 
experienced  in  case  no  protection  is  provided  for  the  racks  in  the 
way  of  side  walls.  Dashing  rains  may  beat  upon  the  brick.  Currents 
of  air  may  cause  cracks  by  too  rapid  extraction  of  moisture  from  the 
exposed  sides  of  the  brick.  The  length  of  time  required  for  drying 
is  dependent  on  the  conditions  of  the  weather.  In  a dry  atmosphere 
the  brick  may  dry  in  a few  days,  whereas  under  humid  conditions 
it  may  require  weeks. 

Shed  Dryer. — Some  plants  are  provided  with  large  sheds  with 
low  supports  or  racks  made  in  rows  with  car  tracks  between  for  the 
purpose  of  receiving  the  pallets  with  the  hacked  brick.  In  others 
no  supports  are  used ; the  pallets  are  placed  upon  the  floor  or  the 
brick  hacked  upon  the  floor  without  pallets.  The  brick  are  criss- 
crossed so  that  there  is  free  circulation  of  air  between  them.  The 
percentage  of  outside  exposed  brick  is  less  than  in  the  use  of  the 
rack  and  pallet  and  consequently  the  per  cent  of  loss  is  less.  The 
protection  from  storms  is  more  efficient  in  the  use  of  sheds.  The 
cost  of  construction,  however,  is  somewhat  higher  for  the  sheds. 
As  in  the  case  of  the  open  yard,  the  source  of  energy  for  evaporation 
is  from  the  sun  for  these  last  two  mentioned  dryers.  The  air  currents, 
however,  can  be  controlled.  There  is  not  the  necessity  of  economizing 
in  the  volume  of  air  that  becomes  imperative  in  the  use  of  the  steam 
or  hot  air  dryer. 

Artificial  Dryers . — There  are  numerous  forms  of  dryers  which 
utilize  either  directly  or  indirectly  heat  derived  from  the  combustion 
of  fuel.  Some  of  these  dryers  consist  of  a brick  or  metal  floor  under 
which  fires  are  built.  The  clay  ware  to  be  dried  is  placed  on  the 
heated  floor.  In  other  floor  dryers  the  floors  consist  of  wooden 
strips  which  are  heated  by  means  of  steam  coils  placed  beneath  the 
floor.  This  last  form  of  dryer  is  commonly  used  for  drying  sewer 
pipe,  drain  tile,  hollow  blocks  and  terra  cotta. 

For  drying  brick  two  types  of  artificial  dryers  are  in  common 
use,  the  chamber  dryer  and  the  continuous  tunnel  dryer.  The 
former  consists  of  one  or  more  rooms  or  chambers  into  which  the 
brick  are  placed.  Commonly  the  brick  are  hacked  upon  cars  and 
the  cars  run  into  the  dryer.  The  heat  is  furnished  from  steam  pipes 


Plate  XIX 


B.  HAND  MOLDING  AND  STARTING  A SCOVE  KILN,  HOLLY  SPRINGS, 


PROCESSES  OF  CLAY  MANUFACTURE. 


119 


laid  beneath  the  track.  In  some  dryers  pipes  are  also  placed  along 
the  side  walls  or  even  along  the  roof.  Under  the  track  is  considered 
the  most  advantageous  position  for  the  pipes.  As  the  air  in  the 
chamber  becomes  heated  it  expands,  rises  and  takes  up  moisture 
from  the  moist  brick.  The  moist  air  is  taken  out  through  one  or 
more  chimneys  or  through  a large  wooden  stack.  The  air  is  con- 
ducted from  chamber  to  chamber  by  means  of  flues. 

In  the  continuous  tunnel  dryer  the  heat  supplied  is  increased  as 
the  distance  from  the  entrance  to  the  tunnel  increases.  The  increase 
in  heat  may  be  obtained  by  increasing  the  number  of  sections  of 
steam  pipe.  The  brick  are  placed  upon  cars,  which  are  run  into  the 
dryer  from  the  stack  end  of  the  tunnel.  They  are  gradually  forced 
through  the  tunnel  in  the  direction  of  increasing  heat  and  decreasing 
moisture.  The  dried  brick  are  taken  out  of  the  tunnel  at  the  end 
opposite  the  stack. 

Hot  air  used  in  drying  brick  may  be  obtained  by  utilizing  the 
waste  air  in  burning  pottery  or  by  heat  produced  in  the  burning  of 
fuel.  The  air  heated  directly  by  the  combustion  of  fuel  is  forced 
through  the  tunnel  by  means  of  a fan  placed  at  the  end  opposite 
the  dryer.  The  air  heated  by  the  furnace  is  drawn  into  a chamber 
where  it  loses  its  soot.  After  passing  to  the  fan  it  is  forced  to  the 
mixing  chamber  to  be  mixed  with  cold  air.  From  the  mixing  chamber 
it  is  conducted  to  the  dryer. 


BURNING. 

Burning  is  a term  which  is  applied  to  that  part  of  the  process  of 
brick  manufacture  during  which  the  raw  clay  product  is  subjected 
to  high  temperatures.  These  high  temperatures  bake  the  clay. 
Hence  the  burning  of  brick  is  not  at  all  analogous  to  the  burning  of 
wood  or  coal.  The  clay  is  not  consumed  but  its  moisture  is  expelled, 
its  density  and  hardness  are  increased,  and  its  plasticity  destroyed. 
The  changes  which  take  place  are  partly  chemical  and  partly  physical. 

Brick  are  first  hardened  by  drying  in  the  sun.  The  use  of  sun- 
dried  brick  dates  back  probably  to  8000  B.  C.  Such  brick  are  still 
used  for  building  purposes  in  some  arid  or  semi-arid  regions.  Burned 
brick  were  first  used  about  4500  B.  C. 

The  process  of  burning  consists  of  two  periods,  the  water-smoking 
period  and  the  burning  period.  The  object  of  water-smoking  is  to 


120 


CLAYS  OF  MISSISSIPPI. 


evaporate  the  water  in  the  clay,  and  for  this  purpose  the  temperature 
of  the  kiln  is  maintained  at  about  212°  F.  The  production  of  too 
high  a temperature  may  result  in  cracked  brick  from  stresses  set  up 
by  steam.  The  air  which  enters  the  bottom  of  the  kiln  soon  becomes 
laden  with  moisture.  Unless  this  moisture  is  removed,  it  may  be 
condensed  in  some  cooler  portion  of  the  kiln.  The  water  thus  formed 
upon  the  surface  of  the  brick  may  soften  them  or  produce  kiln  white. 
The  moisture-laden  air  should  be  removed  as  rapidly  as  possible. 
At  the  beginning  of  the  water-smoking  period,  a large  amount  of  air 
should  be  allowed  to  enter  the  kiln,  and  be  maintained  until  the 
ware  is  dry.  As  the  temperature  of  the  kiln  increases,  the  amount 
of  air  may  be  gradually  diminished.  Wood  is  generally  used  for 
water-smoking,  and  it  should  be  dry.  The  firing  should  be  so  con- 
ducted as  to  produce  a slow  fire  and  little  flame.  Hard  wood  and 
coke  are  said  to  give  the  best  results. 

During  the  burning  process,  the  temperature  should  be  increased 
slowly  until  the  temperature  has  reached  932°  F.  to  1,112°  F.,  at 
which  temperature  the  water  of  crystallization  is  driven  off.  After 
that,  the  temperature  may  be  increased  more  rapidly  until  the  point 
of  incipient  fusion  is  reached.  The  temperature  may  then  be  main- 
tained until  the  heat  has  reached  the  center  of  the  ware.  Care  must 
be  exercised  at  this  stage  of  the  process,  because  in  some  clays  the 
difference  between  incipient  fusion  and  viscosity  may  not  be  very 
great. 

In  some  parts  of  France,  Belgium  and  England,  brick  are  burned 
in  the  open  by  mixing  the  fuel  and  the  raw  brick.  However,  in  most 
plants,  the  brick  are  burned  in  kilns. 

Types  of  Kilns. 

Brick  kilns  may  be  classed  according  to  the  following  outline: 

Up-draft  kilns. 

A.  Scove  kiln. 

B.  Dutch  or  clamp  kiln. 

Down-draft  kilns. 

A.  Beehive  kiln. 

B.  Rectangular  kiln. 

C.  Continuous  kiln. 


Plate  XX. 


B.  SHED  DRYER,  BRICK  HACKED  ON  GROUND. 


PROCESSES  OF  CLAY  MANUFACTURE. 


121 


UP-DRAFT  KILNS. 

In  the  up-draft  kilns,  the  heat  passes  through  the  brick  in  the 
kiln  from  the  bottom  toward  the  top.  In  the  down-draft  kilns, 
the  heat  is  conducted  through  flues  to  the  top  of  the  kiln  and  from 
there  it  passes  downward  through  the  brick  and  is  withdrawn  through 
flues  at  the  bottom  of  the  kiln  connected  with  stacks. 

Scove  kiln. — The  scove  kiln  is  the  simplest  type  of  kiln  and  because 
of  its  cheapness  is  much  used  in  small  plants.  The  brick  are  set  in  a 
rectangular  mass  and  surrounded  by  a double  wall  of  soft-burned 
brick.  The  outer  surface  of  the  wall  is  coated  with  mud  in  order  to 
prevent  loss  of  heat  and  the  entrance  of  air.  The  fire  boxes  are  made 
by  setting  the  brick  in  the  kiln  in  such  a way  as  to  form  arches,  which 
extend  through  the  kiln  from  side  to  side.  The  fuel  is  placed  in  these 
arches  from  openings  in  the  side  walls.  The  top  of  the  kiln  is  covered 
with  a layer  of  brick  laid  flatwise  and  close  together.  The  platting, 
as  this  layer  is  called,  is  sometimes  partly  or  wholly  covered  with 
sand  or  clay,  and  the  heat  is  directed  by  moving  this  loose  material 
from  point  to  point.  The  brick  are  protected  frcm  the  weather 
during  the  setting  and  burning  by  a shed  roof  raised  upon  poles, 
which  extend  several  feet  above  the  top  of  the  brick.  The  brick  are 
laid  in  from  40  to  50  courses. 

Scove  kilns  are  employed  mostly  for  burning  common  brick. 
Vitrified  brick  are  not  easily  burned  in  them  because  of  the  difficulty 
of  securing  a high  temperature.  They  are  not  suitable  for  seme 
kinds  of  clay  for  a similar  reason. 

Dutch  or  clamp  kilns. — The  Dutch  cr  < lamp  type  of  up-draft 
kiln  is  in  more  common  use  than  the  scove  kiln.  These  kilns  have  per- 
manent side  walls  of  a thickness  sufficient  to  retain  mere  heat  than 
the  scove  kiln.  It  is  possible  to  secure  a higher  temperature  in  them. 
The  brick  are  stacked  within  the  walls  of  the  kilns,  arches  being  left 
and  the  top  platted  as  in  the  case  of  the  scove  kiln. 

In  the  up-draft  kiln  several  courses  of  brick  at  the  bottom 
are  likely  to  be  overburned,  while  the  top  courses  are  underburned. 
The  brick  in  the  arches  are  generally  slaggy,  brittle  and  discolored. 
The  percentage  of  hard  burned  brick  varies  with  the  care  exercised 
in  burning.  Rarely  more  than  70  per  cent  of  the  kiln  may  be  classed 
as  number  1 brick. 


122 


CLAYS  OP  MISSISSIPPI. 


DOWN-DRAFT  KILNS. 

In  down-draft  kilns  the  fire  boxes  are  outside  the  walls,  and  the 
heat  is  conducted  to  the  top  of  the  kiln,  and  after  passing  through 
the  brick  is  drawn  off  by  flues  at  the  bottom  through  one  or  more 
stacks.  Some  of  the  advantages  of  this  type  of  kiln  are:  (1)  labor 
saved  in  platting;  (2)  heat  more  thoroughly  and  completely  dis- 
tributed ; (3)  no  extreme  heat  in  contact  with  brick ; (4)  small  amount 
of  waste  due  to  misshapen  brick,  because  the  highest  heat  is  at  the 
top  where  there  is  the  minimum  weight.  From  a single  burn  in  this 
type  of  kiln  as  much  as  90  per  cent  of  hard  burned  brick  has  been 
obtained. 

Beehive  Kiln. — The  beehive  kiln  is  a circular  down-draft  kiln 
with  an  oval  top.  The  kiln  is  supplied  with  one  or  more  stacks. 
The  gases  are  taken  to  these  stacks  from  the  bottom  of  the  kiln  by 
means  of  flues.  It  is  essential  that  the  kiln  should  have  a uniform 
draft,  and  this  is  secured  by  construction  of  flues  and  arrangement 
of  the  wares  within  the  kiln.  The  capacity  of  such  kilns  varies  from 
25.000  to  75,000. 

Rectangular  Kiln. — The  down-draft  rectangular  kilns  are  of 
various  types.  They  range  in  capacity  from  150,000  to  300,000. 
They  may  be  supplied  with  one  large  stack,  into  which  more  than  one 
kiln  may  r pen.  Each  kiln  may  be  supplied  with  two  or  more  small 
stacks.  The  stacks  are  placed  either  at  the  side  or  end  of  the  kilns. 

Continuous  Kilns. — Continuous  kilns  are  built  with  the  object  of 
using  the  waste  heat  from  the  cooling  brick  to  water-smoke  the  un- 
burned brick.  In  shape  they  may  be  circular,  oval  or  rectangular. 

The  only  one  used  in  Mississippi  is  rectangular  in  form.  It  con- 
sists of  12  chambers  arranged  in  two  rows  and  separated  by  perma- 
nent walls.  Each  chamber  has  a capacity  of  70,000  brick.  Pro- 
ducer gas  is  used  as  fuel.  The  gas  is  conducted  by  conduits  from  the 
gas  producer  to  the  various  chambers.  The  waste  heat  from  the 
chamber  in  which  the  burning  has  just  been  completed  is  used  to 
water-smoke  the  one  which  has  just  been  filled.  The  transfer  of 
waste  heat  may  be  made  between  any  two  of  the  twelve  chambers. 
The  gases  and  water  from  the  chambers  are  taken  through  the  flues 
to  one  large  stack,  located  near  the  end  of  the  kiln. 


CHAPTER  V, 


FUEL. 


Fuel  may  exist  as  a solid,  a liquid  or  a gas.  Among  the  various 
substances  used  for  producing  heat  are  included  wood,  sawdust, 
straw,  bagasse,  turf,  peat,  lignite,  bituminous  coal,  cannel  coal,  an- 
thracite, coke,  charcoal,  petroleum,  furnace  oil,  shale  oil,  creosote, 
tar  oils,  natural  gas,  coal  gas,  water  gas,  gasoline  gas,  naphtha  gas 
and  producer  gas. 

The  principle  combustible  elements  contained  in  these  fuels  are 
carbon  and  hydrogen.  In  the  process  of  combustion  these  elements 
are  oxidized.  The  carbon  (C)  unites  with  oxygen  (0)  in  the  propor- 
tion of  one  part  of  carbon  to  two  parts  of  oxygen,  if  enough  of  the 
latter  is  present,  otherwise  one  part  of  each  combines,  forming  in  the 
first  case  carbon  dioxide  (C02),  in  the  second  case  carbon  monoxide 
(CO).  The  hydrogen  unites  with  oxygen  in  the  proportion  of  two 
parts  of  hydrogen  to  one  part  of  oxygen,  forming  water  (H20).  Both 
of  these  chemical  unions  result  in  heat. 

The  number  of  heat  units  produced  varies  with  different  sub- 
stances. The  heat -producing  power  of  a pound  of  various  sub- 
stances is  given  by  Parsons  in  “Steam  Boilers,”  as  follows: 

TABLE  19. 

CALORIFIC  VALUE  OF  DIFFERENT  FUELS. 


Hydrogen  gas 62,032 

Carbon  to  carbon  dioxide 14,500 

Carbon  to  carbon  monoxide 4,400 

Carbon  monoxide  to  carbon  dioxide 4,330 

Olefiant  gas 21,344 

Liquid  hydrocarbons  (oils),  varying  with  weight 19,000  to  22,600 

Charcoal,  from  wood 13,500 

Charcoal,  from  peat 11,600 

Wood,  dry average  7,800 

Wood,  20%  moisture 6,500 

Peat,  dry average  9,950 

Peat,  20%  moisture 7,000 

Coal,  anthracite,  best  quality about  15,000 

Coal,  anthracite,  ordinary 13,000 

Coal,  bituminous,  dry 14,000 

Coal,  cannel 15,000 

Coal,  ordinary  poor  grades 10,000 


124 


CLAYS  OF  MISSISSIPPI. 


CLASSES  OF  FUELS. 

Wood. 

Wood  is  composed  of  organic  and  inorganic  matter  and  water. 
The  first  is  combustible,  the  others  are  non-combustible.  In  the 
process  of  burning  the  water  is  vaporized.  The  organic  matter  is 
consumed,  i.  e.,  it  is  transformed  into  invisible  gases.  The  inorganic 
matter  remains  in  the  ashes.  When  wood  has  been  dried  at  300°  F. 
it  contains  about  99  per  cent  of  organic  matter  and  1 per  cent  of 
inorganic  matter.  The  organic  matter  consists  of  carbon,  49  per 
cent;  oxygen,  44  per  cent,  and  hydrogen,  6 per  cent. 

When  wood  is  heated  above  the  temperature  necessary  to  drive 
off  its  moisture,  gases  are  generated  which  ignite,  producing  flame. 
The  amount  of  heat  produced  depends  upon  the  moisture  condition 
of  the  wood.  When  thoroughly  dry  a given  amount  of  pine  will 
produce  just  as  much  heat  as  the  same  amount  of  hickory.  Pine, 
however,  produces  more  flame  than  oak  or  hickory,  and  not  as  good 
a bed  of  live  coals.  Under  ordinary  yard  conditions  the  oak  or 
hickory  may  be  said  to  exceed  the  pine  by  25  per  cent  in  the  pro- 
duction of  heat. 

Wood  under  ordinary  conditions  contains  25  pounds  of  water, 
74  pounds  of  wood  and  1 pound  of  ash  for  every  100  pounds.  The 
wood  portion  consists  of  37  pounds  of  carbon,  4.4  pounds  of  hydrogen 
and  32  pounds  of  oxygen.  In  the  process  of  combustion  4 pounds 
of  hydrogen  unite  with  32  pounds  of  oxygen,  forming  water.  This 
leaves  about  half  of  the  wood  substance,  37  pounds  of  carbon  and  .4 
pounds  of  hydrogen,  as  elements  of  combustion.  One  hundred 
pounds  of  green  wood  contains  about  50  pounds  of  water.  This  wood 
is  capable  of  producing  270,000  heat  units.  A heat  unit  is  the 
amount  of  heat  required  to  raise  one  pound  of  water  one  degree 
Fahrenheit.  The  same  amount  of  wood  containing  30  pounds  of 
water  will  produce  410,000  heat  units.  Air-dried  wood  contains 
about  20  per  cent  of  water,  and  100  pounds  of  such  wood  is  capable 
of  producing  500,000  heat  units.  When  the  same  amount  of  wood 
contains  only  10  per  cent  of  water  it  will  produce  580,000  heat  units. 
One  hundred  pounds  of  kiln-dried  wood,  containing  2 per  cent  of 
water,  will  produce  630,000  heat  units  (Bull.  10,  U.  S.  Forestry 
Div.,  1895). 


FUEL. 


125 


These  facts  point  clearly  to  the  desirability  of  having  on  hand  a 
good  supply  of  wood,  so  that  the  use  of  green  or  even  half-dried  wood 
may  be  avoided.  The  wood  should  not  be  decayed  nor  should  it  be 
wet  or  green  if  the  highest  heating  efficiency  is  to  be  obtained.  The 
moisture  in  the  wood  must  be  converted  into  water  vapor  and  a 
great  deal  of  heat  is  consumed  in  this  conversion. 

Many  of  the  brick  plants  of  the  State  rely  entirely  upon  wood  for 
fuel.  Nearly  all  use  wood  for  water-smoking.  Oak  and  yellow  pine 
are  the  more  common  kinds  used,  but  in  some  plants  ash,  gum,  wil- 
low and  other  species  are  used.  The  price  of  wood  generally  varies 
with  the  abundance  of  accessible  timber  and  the  ccflidition  of  the  local 
labor  market.  The  average  price  per  cord  paid  for  wood  is  two  dol- 
lars. The  maximum  price  paid  is  two  dollars  and  eighty-five  cents, 
and  the  minimum  is  one  dollar  and  twenty -five  cents. 

Coal. 

Varieties  of  Coal. — There  are  a number  of  varieties  of  coal,  rang- 
ing from  nearly  pure  vegetable  fiber  in  peat  to  the  highly  carbonized 
and  crystalline  anthracite.  The  names  applied  to  these  varieties 
are  peat,  lignite,  cannel  coal,  jet,  bituminous  coal,  semi-anthracite 
and  anthracite.  These  coals  vary  in  the  amount  of  carbon  and 
hydrocarbons  which  they  contain  and  in  other  constituents. 

Peat.— Peat  is  an  accumulation  of  vegetable  matter  which  is 
thought  to  represent  the  first  stage  in  the  formation  of  coal.  It  is 
generally  brownish-black  in  color  and  of  light  weight.  It  contains 
from  50  to  60  per  cent  of  carbon,  5 or  6 per  cent  of  hydrogen, 
and  from  35  to  40  per  cent  of  oxygen.  Its  fuel  ratio  is  only  .47  as 
compared  with  28  in  some  anthracite  coals.  It  is  formed  from  the 
accumulation  of  vegetable  matter  in  bogs  and  low  marshy  areas. 
A great  deal  of  peat  is  being  formed  in  glacial  lakes  and  ponds  by  the 
growth  of  spagnum  moss. 

Lignite. — On  account  of  its  low  stage  in  the  period  of  coal  devel- 
opment lignite  is  sometimes  called  “green”  coal,  but  because  of  its 
color  it  is  also  called  “brown”  coal.  It  is  usually  brown  or  brownish 
black  in  color.  Some  varieties  on  fresh  fracture  present  a shiny 
surface.  It  generally  disintegrates  rapidly  when  exposed  to  the  air 
and  breaks  up  into  small  cubes  or  laminae.  It  is  supposed  to  repre- 


126 


CLAYS  OF  MISSISSIPPI. 


sent  a more  advanced  stage  in  the  development  of  coal  than  peat. 
It  contains  less  volatile  matter  than  the  latter  and  more  fixed  carbon. 
Its  fuel  ratio  is  about  1.50.  It  usually  contains  from  35  to  45  per  cent 
of  fixed  carbon;  from  5 to  20  per  cent  of  ash,  and  from  25  to  30  per 
cent  of  hydrocarbons. 

Bituminous  Coal. — Bituminous  coal  is  a soft  coal  more  dense  than 
lignite,  and  represents  a more  advanced  stage  in  coal  formation.  It 
is  of  a deep  black  color  and  frequently  has  a rather  distinct  resinous 
luster.  It  burns  with  a smoky  flame.  When  exposed  to  the  air  it 
does  not  disintegrate  as  readily  as  lignite  and  contains  a higher  per- 
centage of  fixed  carbon.  Its  fuel  ratio  is  more  than  double  that  of 
lignite.  Bituminous  coal  contains  from  65  to  85  per  cent  of  carbon, 
about  5 per  cent  of  hydrogen,  and  about  15  per  cent  of  oxygen.  Its 
specific  gravity  varies  from  1.20  to  1.40.  Bituminous  coals  may  be 
divided  into  two  varieties,  coking  and  non-coking.  Coking  coals 
when  ignited  with  air  excluded  may  be  changed  to  coke. 

Anthracite. — Anthracite  is  the  hardest  form  of  stone  ccal.  It  has 
a sub-metallic  luster  and  breaks  with  a conchoidal  fracture.  It  is 
brittle  and  of  a shining  black  color.  It  has  a specific  gravity  of  from 
1.57  to  1.67.  It  has  a low  percentage  of  hydrocarbons  and  a high 
per  centage  of  fixed  carbon.  For  this  reason  it  is  difficult  to  ignite 
and  burns  without  much  flame.  It  has  a high  calorific  value  and 
when  burned  under  the  proper  conditions  produces  an  intense  heat. 
Its  fuel  ratio  may  be  as  high  as  28.  It  contains  from  90  to  95  per 
cent  of  carbon.  The  per  cent  of  hydrocarbons  is  from  3 to  5 per  cent. 
Anthracite  coal  represents  the  last  stage  in  coal  metamorphism  and 
has  lost  all  traces  of  its  vegetable  origin. 

Determination  of  the  Calorific  Value  of  Coals. — In  the  determination 
of  coal  constituents  moisture,  volatile  and  combustible  matter,  fixed 
carbon  and  ash  are  determined  by  weight;  sulphur,  iron  and  phos- 
phorous by  analysis.  The  value  of  any  substance  as  a fuel  is  usually 
found  by  determining  the  power  of  a given  quantity  of  the  substance 
to  evaporate  water.  The  heat-producing  power  of  a substance  is 
termed  its  calorific  value.  The  calorific  value  of  a fuel  may  be  ob- 
tained by  determining  the  number  of  pounds  of  water  which  it  will 
convert  into  steam  at  the  boiling  temperature  of  water  under  a pres- 
sure of  one  atmosphere  by  the  consumption  of  one  pound  of  fuel. 


FUEL. 


127 


The  calorific  value  of  fuels  may  be  determined  by  the  calorimetric 
method,  the  computation  method  and  the  direct  method. 

In  the  calorimetric  method  a definite  amount  of  fuel  to  be  tested 
is  burned  in  a chamber  surrounded  by  a definite  amount  of  water. 
The  rise  of  temperature  of  the  water  is  registered  by  a thermometer. 
The  proportion  of  the  fuel  to  the  water  used  is  one  part  of  fuel  to 
every  967  parts  of  water.  This  proportion  is  used  because  when 
water  is  converted  into  steam  at  212°  F.,  967°  F.,  or  537.22  gram 
degrees  or  calories  of  heat,  disappear  as  latent  heat.  If  the  tempera- 
ture of  967  parts  of  water  be  raised  one  degree,  enough  heat  has  been 
employed  to  convert  one  part  of  water  into  steam  at  212°  F.  Thus 
the  rise  of  temperature  of  the  water  as  recorded  by  the  thermometer 
will  indicate  the  number  of  parts  of  water  capable  of  being  converted 
into  steam  by  the  heat  produced  by  the  fuel. 

In  testing  coal  by  the  calorimetric  method  it  is  reduced  to  a fine 
powder  in  order  to  secure  perfect  combustion.  Since  the  fuel  must 
be  consumed  in  a closed  vessel  it  is  necessary,  in  order  that  its  com- 
bustion^may  be  complete,  to  add  compounds  which  will  supply  oxygen. 
To  furnish  the  oxygen  supply  the  coal  is  mixed  with  potassium 
chlorate  (KCI03)  and  potassium  nitrate  (KN03).  The  coal  is  con- 
sumed in  a copper  cartridge  which  fits  into  a cup-shaped  receiver. 
A second  copper  cylinder  with  a valve  tube  at  the  upper  end  is  placed 
over  the  first.  A row  of  openings  around  the  lower  end  of  the  second 
tube  permits  the  escape  of  gases  which  are  produced  in  the  combus- 
tion. This  apparatus  is  placed  in  a graduated  glass  cylinder  which 
contains  the  water.  The  charge  in  the  tube  may  be  ignited  by  the 
use  of  a fuse  of  sufficient  length  to  permit  the  apparatus  to  be  placed 
in  the  vessel  before  the  charge  is  ignited,  and  to  cause  ignition  to  take 
place  by  the  time  the  apparatus  reaches  the  bottom  of  the  vessel. 
The  charge  may  be  ignited  by  means  of  an  electric  current. 

The  gases  of  combustion  pass  through  the  entire  column  of  water 
and  therefore  their  heat  is  lost  to  the  water.  The  rate  of  combustion 
of  the  charge  should  be  controlled  so  as  to  prevent  too  rapid  evolu- 
tion of  gases,  and  at  the  same  time  the  rate  of  burning  should  not  be  so 
slow  as  to  cause  loss  of  heat  through  radiation.  The  rate  of  com- 
bustion may  be  regulated  by  tamping  the  charge  or  by  varying  the 
amount  of  the  oxygen-producing  substances.  As  soon  as  the  charge 
has  been  consumed  the  stopcock  of  the  cartridge  is  opened  so  that 


128 


CLAYS  OF  MISSISSIPPI. 


the  water  may  come  in  contact  with  all  parts  of  the  cartridge  and 
extract  its  heat.  To  facilitate  extraction  the  furnace  may  be  moved 
up  and  down  in  the  water.  The  temperature  of  the  water  should  be 
taken  before  the  charge  is  burned  and  at  the  close  of  the  burning. 
The  temperature  of  the  water  should  always  be  lower  than  the  tem- 
perature of  the  room. 

Allowances  must  be  made  for  heat  absorbed  by  the  gases  of  com- 
bustion, for  heat  produced  by  the  decomposition  of  the  oxygen  com- 
pounds, for  the  loss  of  heat  by  radiation  and  conduction,  and  for  heat 
absorbed  by  the  apparatus.  The  total  loss  of  heat  from  these  sources 
is  from  10  to  15  per  cent. 

By  means  of  the  chemical  analysis  of  coals  and  the  use  of  the  fol- 
lowing formula,  the  calorific  value  of  a coal  may  be  computed: 

Total  heat  expressed  in  B.  T.  U.  = 14,500  C + 62,032  (H— ^). 
The  C is  carbon,  H is  hydrogen  and  the  O oxygen  contained  in  the 
coal.  They  represent  the  amount  by  weight  of  each  of  these  sub- 
stances. The  atomic  weight  of  hydrogen  is  1,  the  atomic  weight  of 
oxygen  is  16.  When  they  unite  to  form  water  they  unite  in  the  pro- 
portion of  two  H to  one  O or  2 to  16  (1  to  8).  When  present  in  the 
form  of  water  they  do  not  produce  heat,  hence  J of  the  oxygen  is 
subtracted  from  the  hydrogen.  Another  formula  sometimes  used  is, 
total  heat  = 14,600  C + 62,000  (H-^)  + 4,000  S,  in  which  S repre- 
sents the  amount  of  sulphur  present. 

In  the  direct  method  of  determining  the  calorific  value,  fuel  is 
used  to  evaporate  water  under  normal  power  plant  conditions,  and 
an  accurate  account  of  the  number  of  pounds  of  coal  used  and  the 
number  of  pounds  of  steam  produced  is  kept  for  a definite  period. 
In  this  way  the  evaporative  power  of  different  fuels  may  be  deter- 
mined and  compared. 

Since  no  coal  is  mined  in  Mississippi  all  our  industrial  plants  are 
dependent  upon  other  States  for  this  class  of  fuel.  Different  parts 
of  the  State  use  coal  derived  from  different  sources.  Some  of  the 
States  from  which  our  coal  supply  is  drawn  are  Pennsylvania,  Illinois, 
Indiana,  Missouri,  Arkansas,  Tennessee,  Kentucky  and  Alabama. 
We  have  very  little  information  as  to  the  calorific  value  of  these 
different  coals.  The  information  given  in  the  following  table  has 
been  collected  by  Professor  Albert  Barnes,  of  the  Mechanical  Depart- 
ment of  the  Agricultural  College  of  Mississippi.  The  tests  were  all 
made  on  Alabama  coals: 


FUEL. 


129 


TABLE  20. 


CALORIFIC  VALUES  OF  ALABAMA  COALS. 

Name  of  Coal. 

Kind  of 
Coal. 

Length  of  test  in  hours. 

i 

Weight  of  coal  burned  in 
pounds. 

Weight  of  ash. 

Weight  of  water  evaporated. 

Weight  of  water  evaporated 
F.  and  A.  212°  F. 

Weight  of  water  evaporated  | 
per  unit  of  coal. 

Cost  of  evaporating  100 
pounds  of  water. 

1 

Sterling  L.  Lanier,  Agt 

R.  of  M. . 

7 

4,577 

579 

21,411 

21,460 

6.00 

$0.02025 

Gilnath  Coal  Co 

Corona  Coal  Co. (Annie 

R.  of  M. . 

7 

6,419 

537 

38,352 

40,001 

6.2 

.0195 

Mae  Mine) 

Carbon  Hill  coal(Kan- 

R.  of  M. . 

7 

4,487 

1,012 

29,571 

6.9 

.0178 

sas  Mine) 

Hill  Creek  Coal  Co. 

R.  of  M. . 

4 

1,379 

275 

9,462 

9,944 

7.2 

.0167 

(Birmingham) 

R.  of  M. . 

8 

5,603 

6,236 

311 

34,250 

45,968 

6.417 

.0195 

Carbon  Hill 

Tenn.  Coal,  Iron  & 

R.  of  M. . 

12 

47,990 

7.7 

.0153 

R.  R.  Co 

Lump . . . 

10 

5,642 

486 

47,514 

49,604 

8.7 

.0150 

Hill’s  Creek  Coal  Co  . . 

R.  of  M.  . 

18 

13,386 

11 

99,730 

7.73 

.015925 

Tupola  Coal  Co 

R.  of  M. . 

4 

2,833 

17,600 

20,768 

7.33 

.0187 

R.  of  M. — Run  of  Mine. 


Mississippi  Lignites. 

As  stated  in  the  foregoing  pages  no  coal  is  mined  in  Mississippi, 
and,  to  the  best  of  our  present  knowledge,  we  have  no  coal  other 
than  lignite.  There  are  numerous  beds  of  lignite  occurring  in  the 
Wilcox  strata  of  the  Eocene  and  in  some  other  horizons.  Below  is 
given  the  analysis  and  the  calorific  values  of  a number  of  these  lig- 
nites. The  samples  were  ’collected  by  Dr.  Calvin  S.  Brown  of  the 
State  Survey  and  the  determinations  were  made  under  the  direction 
of  Dr.  W.  F.  Hand,  State  Chemist. 


TABLE  21. 

COMPOSITION  OF  MISSISSIPPI  LIGNITES. 


Constituent 

No.  10 

No.  14 

No.  15 

No.  20 

No.  43 

No.  46 

Moisture 

..  11.61 

14.20 

11.40 

13.20 

12.20 

12.62 

Volatile  matter. . . , 

. . 34.61 

35.24 

32.61 

40.16 

46.27 

40.85 

Fixed  carbon 

. . 42.47 

41.80 

37.00 

31.24 

30.86 

39.94 

Ash 

. . 11.31 

8.76 

18.99 

15.40 

10.67 

6.50 

Total 

. . 100.00 

100.00 

100.00 

100.00 

100.00 

100.00 

Sulphur 

2.66 

.63 

1 .50 

1 .20 

• 76 

2.05 

5 


130 


CLAYS  OF  MISSISSIPPI. 


CALORIFIC  VALUES. 


Calories  per  gr 

5595 

5255 

5112 

5050 

5096 

5392 

B.  T.  U.  per  pound. . 

10071 

9450 

9201 

9090 

9173 

9706 

COMPOSITION 

OF  THE 

ASH  FROM  LIGNITES. 

Constituent 

No.  14 

No.  23 

No.  25 

No.  43 

No.  46 

No.  48 

Silicon  dioxide 

29.10 

22.95 

63.65 

51.82 

35.00 

22.66 

Aluminum  oxide  — 

13.45 

12.37 

13.25 

26.98 

17.00 

14.88 

Iron  oxide 

21.00 

19.00 

10.95 

7.12 

29.00 

20.62 

Calcium  oxide 

22.80 

21.37 

2.50 

6.07 

4.55 

15.20 

Magnesium  oxide. . . 

.19 

.97 

.90 

.22 

1.50 

2.90 

Sulphur  trioxide .... 

8.53 

14.70 

4.46 

5.45 

6.34 

19.89 

Oil. 

Mineral  oils  are  now  used  for  fuel  in  many  industries.  Petroleum 
is  said  to  be  used  successfully  in  the  burning  of  brick  in  some  of  the 
oil  fields  of  the  West.  The  oil  is  kept  in  tanks  and  fed  into  the  fire 
box  by  means  of  an  injector-nozzle.  The  blast  from  the  nozzle  pro- 
* duces  a current  of  air  which  mingles  with  the  oil  and  flame  in  the 
combustion  chamber,  thereby  aiding  combustion. 

Petroleum,  or  crude  oil,  is  a liquid  of  complex  composition.  It  is 
composed  largely  of  a mixture  of  hydrocarbons.  There  are  two 
general  classes  of  petroleum,  viz.:  those  having  a paraffin  base  and 
those  having  an  asphaltum  base.  Chemically  petroleum  is  composed 
of  carbon,  hydrogen  and  oxygen.  The  percentage  of  carbon  varies 
from  82  to  87  per  cent;  hydrogen  from  12  to  14.8  per  cent,  and 
oxygen  from  1 to  6 per  cent.  The  specific  gravity  ranges  from  .80 
to  .983.  A gallon  of  petroleum  weighs  from  6.5  to  7.8  pounds.  A 
pound  of  oil  will  produce  from  19,000  to  22,000  heat  units  and  will 
evaporate  from  19.6  to  22.7  pounds  of  water. 

The  results  obtained  from  the  use  of  petroleum  for  boiler  fuel  at 
the  World’s  Fair  at  Chicago  in  1893  were  as  follows: 


TABLE  22. 


AMOUNT  AND  COST  OF  PETROLEUM  FOR  BOILER  FUEL. 


Consumption  of  oil  per  hour 

Water  evaporated  from  212°  F.  into  steam  at  125  pounds,  per 

pound  of  oil 

Equivalent  evaporation  from  and  at  212°  F 

Cost  of  oil  per  hour .' 

Cost  of  oil  per  boiler  horse-power  per  hour 

Cost  of  labor  per  boiler  horse-power  per  hour 

Cost  of  boiler  horse-power  per  hour 


22,792  pounds 


14.25 

14.88 

$56.20 

.0057 

.0006 

.0063 


FUEL. 


131 


Repeated  experiments  seem  to  have  demonstrated  that  in  evapo- 
rative power  one  pound  of  oil  is  equivalent  to  two  pounds  of  coal. 
The  causes  of  the  superiority  of  oil  are  summed  up  by  Parsons  in 
Steam  Boilers  as  follows: 

“1.  The  combustion  of  the  liquid  fuel  is  complete,  whereas  that  of 
coal  is  not,  consequently  in  the  former  case  there  is  no  lost  heat  in 
smoke  or  soot. 

“2.  There  are  no  ashes  or  clinkers,  and  consequently  no  fires  to 
clean  with  the  accompanying  loss  of  heat  and  drop  in  the  steam- 
pressure. 

“3.  The  boiler-tubes  are  always  free  from  soot  and  clean,  and 
therefore  always  in  the  best  condition  for  transmitting  the  heat  from 
the  gases  passing  through  them  to  the  water  of  the  boiler. 

“4.  The  temperature  of  the  escaping  gases  may  be  considerably 
lower  than  is  required  to  create  the  draft  necessary  for  coal-firing. 

“5.  The  admission  of  air  being  under  complete  control,  and  the 
fuel  being  burned  in  fine  particles  in  close  contact  with  oxygen  of  the 
air,  only  a small  excess  of  air  above  that  actually  necessary  for  the 
combustion  of  the  fuel  is  required.  With  coal,  in  order  to  insure  as 
complete  combustion  as  possible,  a very  much  larger  excess  of  air 
is  required.” 

Gas. 

Natural  gas  has  not  been  discovered  in  appreciable  quantities  in 
Mississippi  or  in  the  territory  immediately  adjacent.  For  this  reason 
this  form  of  fuel  is  not  used  in  any  of  our  industrial  plants.  Artificial 
gas,  called  producer  gas,  is  used  in  one  of  the  clay  plants  of  the  State 
for  burning  its  ware.  The  gas  is  manufactured  by  injecting  steam 
upon  a bed  of  burning  soft  coal.  The  gas  is  used  in  a chambered 
continuous  kiln.  By  the  use  of  this  form  of  fuel  there  is  said  to  be  a 
large  saving  in  labor  and  fuel.  Twenty-six  hundred  feet  of  natural 
gas  is  equivalent,  in  heating  power,  to  a good  average  ton  of  coal. 
It  would,  however,  require  100,000  feet  of  some  of  the  poorer  artificial 
gases  to  be  of  equal  value. 

The  composition  of  natural  gas  and  some  of  the  artificial  gases  is 
given  in  the  following  table  from  Kent’s  Mechanical  Engineer’s 
Pocket-book: 


132 


CLAYS  OF  MISSISSIPPI. 


TABLE  23. 

COMPOSITION  OF  FUEL  GASES. 


Constituent 

CO 

H 

CH4 

C2H4 

C02 

N 

O 

Vapor 

Weight  in  pounds  of  1,000 

cubic  feet 

Heat  units  in  1 ,000  cubic 
feet 1 


Natural 

Coal 

Water 

gas 

gas 

gas 

0.50 

6.0 

45.0 

2.18 

46.0 

45.0 

92.60 

40.0 

2.0 

.31 

4.0 

.26 

.5 

4.0 

3.61 

1.5 

2.0 

.34 

.5 

.5 

1.5 

1.5 

45.60 

32.0 

45.6 

100,000  735,000  322,000 


Producer-gas 


.4  nthracite 

Bituminous 

27.0 

27.0 

12.0 

12.0 

1.2 

2.5 

.4 

2.5 

2.5 

57.0 

56.2 

.3 

.3 

65.6  65.6 

137,455  156,917 


The  same  author  gives  the  following  fuel  values  for  the  different 
kinds  of  gaseous  fuels: 


TABLE  24. 


FUEL  VALUE  OF  GASES. 


No.  of  heat 

Cost  of 

No.  of  heat 

units  in 

Average 

1,000,000 

units  in 

furnaces 

cost 

heat  units 

1,000 

after 

per 

obtained 

Kind  of  gas 

cubic  feet 

deducting 

cubic 

in 

used 

25%  loss 

foot 

furnaces 

Natural  gas 

1,000,000 

750,000 

Coal-gas,  20  candle  power 

675,000 

506,250 

$1.25 

$2.46 

Carburetted  water-gas 

646,000 

484,500 

1.00 

2.06 

Gasoline-gas,  20  candle  power 

690,000 

517,500 

.90 

1.73 

Water-gas  from  coke 

313,000 

234,750 

.40 

1.70 

Water-gas  from  bituminous  coal.  . 

377,000 

282,750 

.45 

1.59 

Water-gas  and  producer-gas  mixed 

185,000 

138,750 

.20 

1.44 

Producer-gas 

Naphtha-gas,  fuel  2}  gallons,  per 

150,000 

112,500 

.15 

1.33 

1,000  feet 

Coal,  $4.00  per  ton,  per  1,000,000 

306,365 

229,774 

.15 

.65 

heat,  units  utilized 

.73 

Crude  petroleum,  3 cents  per  gal- 

lon, per  1,000,000  heat  units.  . 

.73 

CHAPTER  VL 


PROPERTIES  OF  BRICK. 


EARLY  HISTORY  OF  BRICK* 

According  to  present  historical  knowledge  clay  was  first  employed 
for  structural  purposes  in  Babylonia.*  This  country  is  partly  an 
alluvial  plain  bordering  on  the  Persian  Gulf.  The  plain  is  drained 
by  the  Tigris  and  the  Euphrates  rivers  and  is  probably  very  similar 
in  origin  to  the  Yazoo  basin  of  the  Mississippi.  This  plain,  like  others 
of  its  kind,  is  devoid  of  ledges  of  hard  rock  which  can  be  used  for 
structural  purposes.  So  the  early  inhabitant,  not  finding  the  rock 
with  which  to  construct  his  house,  was  compelled  to  employ  a sub- 
stitute. Hence  brick — another  proof  that  necessity  is  the  mother  of 
invention.  Down  beneath  the  drifting  sands  of  the  plain  the  early 
inhabitant  of  Babylonia  found  a plastic  clay  which  he  .could  mold 
and  fashion  into  brick.  Thus  brick  and  other  clay  wares  were  manu- 
factured, probably  8,000  years  before  the  beginning  of  the  Christian 
Era. 

The  first  brick  were  irregular  rectangular  masses  of  clay  dried  in 
the  sun.  Brick  were  not  burned  until  about  4500  B.  C.  The  first 
burned  brick  were  small,  flat  upon  one  side  and  rounded  upon  the 
other,  or  plano-convex  brick  with  rounded  corners.  These  brick  were 
set  upon  edge  in  the  wall,  the  spaces  being  filled  in  with  mud  or 
bitumen.  Forty-five  varieties  of  these  early  brick  have  been  discov- 
ered in  excavations  recently  made  in  Bismya. 

BRICK  TESTS. 

In  order  to  determine  the  wearing  qualities  of  brick  a series  of 
tests  is  employed.  These  tests  determine  the  amount  of  load 
required  to  break  the  brick  crosswise,  transverse  strength;  the 
amount  of  load  required  to  crush  the  brick,  crushing  strength;  the 
number  of  pounds  of  pull  the  brick  will  stand,  tensile  strength;  the 


♦Banks,  Clay  Products  of  Early  Babylonia,  Clay  Worker  for  January,  1907. 


134 


CLAYS  OF  MISSISSIPPI. 


amount  of  water  the  brick  will  absorb,  absorption  test;  the  amount 
of  knocking  about  required  to  destroy  the  brick,  impact  test; 
and  the  amount  of  freezing  the  brick  will  stand  without  deterioration. 
These  tests  are  not  so  essential  in  small  buildings,  but  in  large  structures, 
and  especially  in  paving  work,  they  are  very  essential.  However,  only 
four  are  considered  of  leading  importance,  viz.:  transverse  strength, 
crushing  strength,  impact  strength,  absorption. 

Crashing  Strength. 

The  crushing  strength  of  a brick  is  expressed  in  the  number  of 
pounds  of  pressure  per  square  inch  of  surface  that  a brick  will  stand. 
The  object  of  the  test  is  to  determine  how  much  load  the  brick  are 
capable  of  supporting  when  placed  in  a wall.  The  crushing  strength 
of  brick  varies  from  500  pounds  to  15,000  pounds  per  square  inch. 

The  weight  of  an  ordinary  brick  is  about  5 pounds.  When  laid 
flatwise  a standard  brick  has  an  exposed  top  area  of  32  square  inches. 
Each  brick  laid  upon  this  surface  exerts  a pressure  of  about  i of  a 
pound  per  square  inch.  Every  six  bricks  then  exert  a pressure  of 
1 pound  per  square  inch.  Therefore,  in  a wall  100  feet  high  the 
pressure  exerted  upon  the  bottom  layer  of  brick,  if  the  weight  of  the 
brick  only  is  considered,  is  only  100  pounds  per  square  inch.  From 
these  facts  it  will  readily  be  seen  that  the  crushing  strength  of  brick 
is  not  likely  to  be  overtaxed  in  construction  work.  The  crushing 
strength  of  brick  is  tested  in  machines  specially  constructed  for  the 
test.  In  soft-burned  brick  the  crushing  strength  may  be  as  low  as 
40  pounds  per  square  inch. 

In  making  the  test,  parallel  edges  of  the  half  of  a brick  are  ground 
smooth  and  the  brick  is  then  placed  between  the  bearing  plates  of 
the  machine.  The  load  is  increased  gradually  until  the  strength  of 
the  brick  is  reached  when  it  falls  into  pieces  with  a loud  report. 

Absorption. 

Brick  are  porous.  That  is,  they  contain  spaces  not  occupied  by 
clay  particles.  The  degree  of  porosity  is  determined  by  the  amount 
of  water  that  the  brick  will  absorb.  The  porosity  of  a brick  may 
depend  upon  a number  of  factors.  It  may  depend  upon  the  character 
of  the  clay  used.  A coarse,  sandy  clay  will  produce  a more  porous 
brick  than  a more  aluminous  clay.  It  may  depend  upon  the  degree 


PROPERTIES  OF  BRICK. 


135 


of  burning,  as  a soft-burned  brick  will  absorb  more  than  a hard- 
burned  brick.  It  may  also  depend  upon  the  process  of  molding. 
Soft-mud  brick,  as  a rule,  are  more  porous  than  stiff -mud  brick. 

The  percentage  of  absorption  in  Iowa  common  brick  ranges  from 
9.5  per  cent  to  22.7  per  cent.  One  paving  brick  tested  absorbed 
4.7  per  cent.* 

New  Jersey  soft-mud  brick  range  from  5.36  per  cent  to  18.64  per 
cent,  while  stiff-mud  brick  range  from  1.34  per  cent  to  14.29  per  cent.f 

The  following  tests  were  made  upon  some  bricks  from  this  State. 
The  samples  tested,  after  being  carefully  dried,  were  weighed  and  then 
immersed  in  water  for  48  hours.  Upon  being  taken  from  the  water, 
the  moisture  adhering  to  their  surfaces  was  removed  and  they  were 
re  weighed.  The  difference  between  the  weight  of  the  dry  brick  and 
the  wet  brick  gave  the  amount  of  water  absorbed.  By  dividing  this 
difference  by  the  weight  of  the  dry  brick  the  percentage  of  absorption 
was  determined. 

TABLE  25. 

ABSORPTION  TESTS  OF  MISSISSIPPI  BRICKS. 


Per  cent  of 

Locality  Color  Make  of  brick  absorption 

Stonington Red Pressed 10.52 

Yazoo  City “ “ 15.00 

“ “ “ “ 15.00 

" “ “ “ 15.00 

Oxford “ “ 14.09 

“ “ “ 12.50 

“ “ “ 12.76 

“ “ “ 13.04 


«« 

«• 

. 15.00 

Starkville 

Red 

. 22.22 
. 10.52 

Chocolate 

.. 

. 5.00 

“ “ 

. 5.26 

Stiff  mild 

8.10 

Red 

5.26 

Columbus 

Chocolate .....  . 

.. 

. 21.21 

Red 

.. 

. 15.74 

Amory 

Chocolate , - , 

.. 

. 15.00 

Red 

.< 

9.75 

Maben 

.. 

8.80 

Red 

.. 

. 16.86 

« 

.. 

. 26.86 

It  is  thus  seen  that  the  percentage  of  absorption  in  dry-pressed 
brick  ranges  from  10.52  to  15  per  cent.  The  percentage  of  absorption 


♦See  Vol.  XIV,  Iowa  Geol.  Sur.,  p.  695. 
tSee  Vol.  VI,  N.  J.  Geol.  Sur.,  pp.  254-5. 


136 


CLAYS  OF  MISSISSIPPI. 


in  repressed  brick  ranges  from  5 to  22.22  per  cent.  The  percentage 
of  absorption  in  stiff-mud  brick  ranges  from  5.26  to  26.82  per  cent. 
In  the  manufacture  of  these  brick  different  kinds  of  clay  were  used 
and  the  degree  of  burning  varied.  All  of  those  exhibiting  a high  per- 
centage of  absorption  were  so  ft -burned. 

Impact  Strength 

Rattler  Test. — Brick  for  the  rattler  impact  test  are  placed  in  a 
polygonal  cast-iron  barrel  which  is  made  to  revolve  on  trunnions. 
The  length  of  the  barrel  is  20  inches  and  its  diameter  is  28  inches. 
It  is  a regular  polygon  of  14  sides.  The  brick  are  placed  in  the  barrel 
together  with  a charge  of  cast-iron  blocks.  The  barrel  is  then  moved 
at  a certain  speed  for  a definite  number  of  hours.  The  strength  of 
the  brick  is  then  estimated  by  the  amount  of  loss  it  has  sustained  due 
to  abrasion.  The  charge  consists  of  12  brick  and  300  pounds  of  iron 
blocks  of  two  sizes.  First,  cubes  of  H inches  in  diameter  having  a 
collective  weight  of  225  pounds;  second,  blocks  2\  inches  square  and 
4 J inches  long  with  rounded  edges  and  a collective  weight  of  75  pounds. 
The  number  of  revolutions  required  for  the  test  is  1,800  at  the  rate  of 
80  per  minute.  The  brick  must  be  perfectly  dry.  The  loss  is  com- 
puted as  per  cent  of  the  dry  brick  and  the  average  of  two  tests  taken 

The  rules  for  this  test,  adopted  by  the  National  Brick  Manu 
facturers’  Association,  are  as  follows: 

“The  standard  rattler  shall  be  28  inches  in  diameter  and  20  inches 
in  length,  inside  measurements.  Other  dimensions  may  be  employed 
between  26  and  30  inches  diameter  and  18  to  24  inches  length,  in  which 
case  the  dimensions  should  be  stated  in  reporting  the  test.  Longer 
rattlers  may  be  employed  by  the  insertion  of  a diaphragm. 

“The  barrel  should  be  supported  on  trunnions  at  the  ends  with  no 
shaft  running  through  the  rattling-chamber.  The  cross  section 
should  be  a regular  polgyon  of  14  sides.  The  heads  shall  be  of  gray 
cast  iron,  not  chilled  or  case-hardened.  The  staves  shall  preferably 
be  composed  of  steel  plates,  as  cast  iron  peens  and  ultimately  breaks 
from  the  wearing  action  on  the  inner  side.  There  shall  be  a space  of 
one-fourth  an  inch  between  the  staves  for  the  escape  of  dust  and 
small  pieces.  Machines  having  from  12  to  16  staves  may  be  employed, 
with  openings  from  J to  f inch,  but  these  variations  from  the  standard 
should  be  mentioned  in  an  official  report. 


PROPERTIES  OP  BRICK. 


137 


“The  charge  shall  consist  of  but  one  kind  of  brick  at  a time,  nine 
paving  blocks  or  twelve  bricks  being  inserted,  together  with  300  pounds 
of  cast-iron  blocks.  These  shall  be  of  two  sizes,  75  pounds  being  of 
the  larger  and  225  pounds  of  the  smaller  size.  The  larger  size  shall  be 
about  2£  inches  square  and  4£  inches  long,  with  slightly  rounded 
edges.  All  blocks  shall  be  replaced  by  new  ones  when  they  have 
lost  10  per  cent  of  their  original  weight. 

“The  number  of  revolutions  shall  be  1,800  for  a standard  test  at 
a speed  between  28  and  30  per  minute. 

“The  bricks  shall  be  thoroughly  dried  before  testing.  The  loss 
shall  be  calculated  as  per  cent  of  the  weight  of  the  dry  bricks  com- 
posing the  charge,  and  no  result  shall  be  considered  as  official  unless 
it  is  the  average  of  two  distinct  and  complete  tests  made  on  separate 
charges  of  brick.”  (Materials  of  Construction,  Johnson,  p.  461a.) 


Tensile  Strength. 

The  tensile  strength  of  ordinary  brick  varies  from  40  to  400  pounds 
per  square  inch.  The  test  is  made  by  placing  the  specimen  in  the  jaws 
of  a machine  and  measuring  the  amount  of  pull  necessary  to  break 
the  section.  The  tensile  strength  of  a large  number  of  Mississippi 
brick  clays  was  tested  in  both  the  raw  and  the  burned  state.  These 
results  are  recorded  under  the  discussion  of  the  individual  clays.  No 
tests  have  been  made  upon  the  manufactured  product  of  the  various 
plants.  The  tensile  strength  of  some  of  the  burned  clays  ranges  as 
high  as  800  pounds  per  square  inch. 

Transverse  Strength. 

The  transverse  strength  of  a brick  is  measured  by  the  load  it  will 
sustain  when  unequally  supported.  F or  example , suppose  a brick  to  be 
supported  at  each  end  and  a load  applied  to  a point  midway  between 
the  supports.  When  the  load  added  reaches  the  transverse  strength 
of  the  brick  the  brick  will  be  broken  crosswise.  The  modulus  of 
rupture  is  calculated  by  the  use  of  a formula  in  which 


R = Modulus  of  rupture. 

W = Pressure  of  load. 

1 = Distance  between  supports, 
b = Breadth  of  brick. 
h = Thickness  of  brick. 

_ _ j "D  3W1 

and  K = 2bP 


138 


CLAYS  OP  MISSISSIPPI. 


Now,  if  a weight  of  3,000  pounds  be  applied  to  a brick  4 inches 
wide  and  2 inches  thick,  where  the  distance  between  the  supports  is 
4 inches,  its  transverse  strength  will  be  as  follows: 

1,125  pounds. 

Weight  of  Brick. 

Common  brick,  having  a size  of  8J  x 4 x 2 inches,  have  an  average 
weight  of  4J  pounds.  One  thousand  of  such  brick  have  a weight  of 
4,500  pounds  or  2.01  long  tons.  Pressed  brick  of  standard  size  have 
an  average  weight  of  5 pounds  and  weigh  2.23  tons  per  1,000. 

The  average  weight  of  10  Mississippi  pressed  brick  is  5.6  pounds. 
The  average  weight  of  10  repressed  brick  of  stiff-mud  make  is  4.7 
pounds.  The  average  weight  of  10  stiff-mud  brick  is  4.6  pounds. 
These  brick  represent  different  kinds  of  clays  and  different  sizes  of 
molds. 

Size  of  Brick. 

The  size  of  a standard  brick  is  8J  inches  long  by  4 inches  wide  by 
2 inches  thick.  A brick  of  this  size  contains  66  cubic  inches.  It 
requires  26.2  bricks  of  standard  size  to  make  1 cubic  foot  and  707 
standard  brick  to  make  1 cubic  yard. 

The  following  table  exhibits  the  sizes  of  some  Mississippi  brick. 
These  brick  vary  in  volume  from  64  cubic  inches  to  95  cubic  inches. 
One,  alone,  falls  below  the  volume  of  a standard  brick,  and  that  one 
by  2 cubic  inches  only. 


SIZE  OF  SOME  MISSISSIPPI  BRICK. 


PROPERTIES  OF  BRICK. 


139 


8 

Or- 


6 - - 


a . 


a 

ci 

O - 


• .JsM® , JN  . Jcq  . . Icq  . . . |M 

Hn  “VirnH  Ih  Ho  H«  H H»  Hh  -W  *>-< 

<N<N<N<N<N(N<N<N(N<N<N(N<N<N<N<N<N<N 


XXXXXXXX 

|eq  h|n 

w|co  eew  M Hn  w|h  Ho 


XXXXXXXXXX 

i-t|eq  |cq  r-i|cq 

r-l|r-t  Ho  '■’M  mW  io|«o  r-lh-l  MW 

THco-^-'t'ooc'O'^^eoeo 
XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX 

rt|Nr-l|<M  rHleq  |<NHl<M 

Hn  «+o  Hn  Hort|H  MW  H«  H-f  Ho  Ho 

OONMWNNOOOONOONOONOOOOOOOOOO 


a a 

p p 


a a 

p p 


'd’H'd'w'S'H'a.-w 

Dc3aj<ucaco<uiu'?;7:(Urt<urt(i)rt<uty 


<u  ^2  o 


x> 

o 


o 

o -P 


o 

O TP 


• • cj  • n rTV 

^ »d  *d  h g o ^ o .2?  ’_5  h w D O "O  o 'O 

O O O CT  O r«  Or;  C ^ aj  O <D  r;  (Dr;  <D 

g g £ £ S^offl^QH^of^o^ 


HNcO’tiOONCOOO 


140 


CLAYS  OF  MISSISSIPPI. 


Variation  in  the  size  of  brick  may  be  due  to  a number  of  factors, 
viz.:  (a)  size  of  the  die,  (6)  wearing  of  the  die,  (c)  shrinkage  of  the 
clay,  (d)  degree  of  burning,  ( e ) load  in  kiln,  (/)  method  of  molding. 

The  dies  used  by  different  manufacturers  are  not  of  uniform  size. 
Even  in  the  same  machine  the  dies  may  vary  in  size,  depending 
usually  upon  the  desire  of  the  manufacturer  for  a larger  or  smaller 
brick.  The  wearing  of  the  die  will  inccrease  the  size  of  the  brick. 
Some  manufacturers  put  in  a new  die  at  the  beginning  of  each  new 
kiln.  The  last  brick  made  by  an  old  die  are  sometimes  as  much  as 
| of  an  inch  wider  and  thicker  than  the  first  ones  molded. 

Variability  is  produced  by  a difference  in  the  amount  of  shrinkage 
in  clays.  Even  in  clays  from  the  same  pit  there  may  be  a marked 
difference  in  the  shrinkage.  In  surface  deposits  the  top  clays  shrink 
less  than  the  bottom  clays.  Numbers  3 and  4 of  the  table  given 
above  were  molded  by  the  same  machine  and  burned  to  the  same 
degree.  The  variation  in  volume  (11  cubic  inches)  is  due  entirely  to 
the  difference  in  the  shrinkage  of  the  clays.  No.  3 was  made  from 
the  brown  loam  and  No.  4 from  the  Wilcox.  Nos.  14  and  15,  made 
by  the  same  machine  under  uniform  conditions,  represent  the  varia- 
bility produced  by  different  degrees  of  burning. 

Three  sizes  of  brick  may  be  produced  in  the  same  kiln.  In  an 
up-draft  kiln  the  top  brick  are  larger  than  the  middle  brick,  and 
the  latter  larger  than  the  lower  brick.  Exceptions  may  be  produced 
in  some  kilns  by  the  expansion  of  certain  kinds  of  clay  at  the  point 
of  viscosity. 

The  size  of  a brick  will  also  depend  upon  the  amount  of  load  it 
sustains  in  the  kiln.  The  weight  of  superincumbent  brick  may  com- 
press the  lower  brick,  when  near  the  point  of  viscosity,  causing  a loss 
of  width  which  may  be  partly  compensated  by  a gain  in  length,  but 
resulting  on  the  whole  in  a loss  of  volume.  Another  cause  for  variation 
in  size  of  brick  will  be  found  in  the  different  methods  of  molding 
employed,  viz.:  whether  soft-mud,  stiff -mud  or  dry -press. 

The  importance  of  the  size  of  brick  to  the  consumer  is  readily 
demonstrated.  For  instance,  it  requires  26.2  bricks  of  the  standard 
size  to  make  1 cubic  foot  and  707  bricks  for  1 cubic  yard.  Now,  if 
the  brick  are  smaller  by  one-fourth  inch  in  each  dimension  there  will 
be  a decrease  of  13.5  cubic  inches  in  volume  per  brick,  and  it  will 


PROPERTIES  OF  BRICK. 


141 


require  25  per  cent  more  brick  for  each  cubic  foot.  The  cost  of  build- 
ing will  thus  be  increased  about  25  per  cent. 

As  will  be  seen  from  the  table,  only  one  of  the  Mississippi 
brick  falls  below  the  standard  size.  This  one  represents  the  minimum 
size  of  that  manufacturer,  and  the  small  size  is  due  to  excessive 
shrinkage  in  the  clay,  not  enough  non-plastic  material  being  used  in 
that  run. 


Number  of  Brick  in  Construction  Work. 

The  number  of  brick  of  standard  size  (8i  x 4 x 2 inches)  required 
in  walls,  allowance  being  made  for  waste: 

1 square  foot  of  a wall  1 brick  thick  will  require  14  brick. 

1 “ “ “ “ 1*  “ “ “ “ 21  “ 

1 “ “ “ “ 2 “ “ “ “ 28  “ 

1 “ “ “ “ 2\  “ “ “ “ 35  “ 

1 3 “ “ “ “ 42  “ 

An  English  rod  of  brick  contains  306  cubic  feet  and  requires  4,500 

brick. 

One  bricklayer  with  a helper  will  lay  1,500  brick  in  a day  of  ten 
hours  when  working  on  an  ordinary  wall.  In  face  or  front  work,  he 
will  lay  from  1,000  to  1,200. 

The  number  of  brick  of  standard  size  required  per  square  yard  in 
sidewalk  work  is  38  brick,  providing  they  are  placed  flatwise.  If 
placed  edgewise  the  number  required  is  73,  and  when  placed  endwise 
149  are  required.  One  man  with  a helper  will  place  2,000  brick  in  a 
day  of  ten  hours. 


Varieties  of  Brick  in  a Kiln. 

In  the  down-draft  kiln  the  top  course  is  generally  discolored  with 
soot  and  ashes.  The  first  two  or  three  courses  are  sometimes  brittle. 
As  a usual  thing  these  courses  contain  very  hard  brick,  because  they 
are  subjected  to  the  highest  heat  of  the  kiln.  They  may,  however, 
because  of  rapid  cooling,  be  deficient  in  toughness. 

The  shape  of  the  brick  of  the  top  courses  in  a down-draft  kiln  is 
generally  excellent,  for  the  reason  that  there  is  no  weight  resting  upon 
them  to  cause  distortion.  The  conditions  of  burning  make  them  very 
desirable  for  sewers  and  foundations. 


142 


CLAYS  OF  MISSISSIPPI. 


The  lower  courses  in  down-draft  kilns  are  liable  to  be  under-burned 
or  soft  brick.  The  number  of  courses  of  soft  brick,  varying  with  the 
conditions  of  the  burning,  may  be  from  two  to  ten  courses.  They  are 
generally  classified  as  No.  2 building  brick  and  are  used  for  backing. 

The  courses  between  the  brittle  top  courses  and  the  soft  lower 
courses  are  classed  as  hard-burned  brick.  They  are  characterized  by 
a tough,  homogenous,  hard  body  and  a fairly  uniform  color. 

The  degree  of  vitrification  is  determined  by  the  depth  of  the  kiln 
marks,  the  limits  for  hard  brick  being  placed  at  J and  §■  inch. 


CHAPTER  VII. 


IMPERFECTIONS  OF  BRICK. 


Imperfections  of  brick  arise  from  a number  of  causes.  The  char- 
acter and  causes  of  some  of  the  more  common  imperfections  in  brick 
are  discussed  in  the  following  pages. 

DEFECTS  OF  FORM. 

SWOLLEN  BRICK. 

If  the  temperature  of  a brick  is  raised  rapidly  so  that  the  outside 
becomes  vitrified  before  the  gases  have  been  expelled,  swollen  brick 
will  result.  For  example,  suppose  a brick  contains  a high  per  cent  of 
calcium  carbonate  (CaC03).  By  the  action  of  heat  the  CaC03  is  con- 
verted into  CaO  (lime),  and  C02  (carbon  dioxide),  a gas.  Now,  if  the 
outside  of  the  brick  reaches  the  density  and  viscosity  of  vitrification 
before  the  gas  has  all  been  expelled,  the  gas  will  be  temporarily  con- 
fined, and  the  expansion  due  to  the  confined  gas  will  cause  a swelling 
of  the  brick.  This  is  especially  likely  to  occur  in  the  case  of  the  occur- 
rence of  nodules  of  calcium  carbonate  or  pyrite  in  the  clay. 

" Clay  also  contains  gypsum,  calcium  sulphate,  which  when  heated 
evolves  a gas.  The  chemical  symbol  for  gypsum  is  CaS04,  2H20. 
At  a temperature  varying  from  212°  F.  to  932°  F.  the  water  (H20) 
is  drawn  off.  At  a still  higher  temperature  the  S03  (a  gas)  is  separ- 
ated, leaving  CaO.  If  the  outsides  of  the  brick  have  reached  the 
stage  of  viscosity  at  the  time  of  the  evolution  of  the  gas  swollen  brick 
will  result. 

Some  clays  which  are  used  in  the  manufacture  of  brick  contain 
very  appreciable  quantities  of  organic  matter.  In  the  combustion 
of  this  organic  matter  gaseous  products  (hydrocarbons)  are  formed. 
If  the  outer  surface  of  the  brick  should  become  viscous  before  the 
hydrocarbons  are  all  expelled,  the  expansive  force  of  these  gases  may 
result  in  swollen  ware.  (A  pound  of  carbon  requires  2§  pounds  of 
oxygen  for  combustion  and  produces  3§  pounds  of  C02.) 


144 


CLAYS  OF  MISSISSIPPI. 


WARPED  BRICK. 

Warping  of  brick  may  be  caused  either  in  drying  or  in  burning. 
Brick  so  placed  in  the  dryer  that  they  will  dry  faster  upon  one  side 
than  the  other  may  warp.  This  is  a common  result  when  soft-mud 
brick  are  left  too  long  upon  the  flat  side  in  the  open  yard.  Less  often 
they  warp  when  placed  upon  pallets  in  racks.  Strong  currents  of  air 
may  produce  such  results  even  in  the  racks. 

Warping  may  result  in  the  kilns  when  one  side  of  a brick  reaches 
the  point  of  viscosity  while  the  other  side  is  still  solid.  Warping  of 
brick  in  a kiln  is  commonly  produced  by  careening,  that  is,  is  a differ- 
ential settling  of  the  brick  in  the  kiln.  The  brick  in  this  section  of 
the  kiln  soften,  shrink  and  settle.  Since  the  brick  in  the  kiln  are  all 
bound  together  in  setting,  the  unequal  settling  will  cause  some  of 
them  to  be  stressed.  If  they  are  soft  enough  to  yield  to  the  strain 
they  will  be  warped,  otherwise  they  will  be  broken.  Careening  is 
caused  by  faulty  methods  of  firing.  Too  rapid  firing  in  some  parts 
of  the  kiln  causes  the  heat  to  be  drawn  to  one  place,  and  chokes  up 
parts  of  the  kiln  with  smoke  or  soot. 

CRACKED  BRICK. 

Too  rapid  drying  results  in  differential  shrinkage  which  produces 
cracks.  When  moisture  is  removed  from  the  brick  too  rapidly  it 
causes  the  outside  to  shrink  more  rapidly  than  the  interior,  thus  sub- 
jecting the  exterior  to  stretching,  which  results  in  breaking.  Ex- 
tremely sandy  and  extremely  plastic  clays  are,  as  a rule,  tender  and 
require  careful  handling  in  the  first  extraction  of  moisture.  Exposure 
to  full  and  free  circulation  of  the  air  is  generally  fatal  to  such  clays. 
They  should  be  protected  from  drafts  for  from  six  to  twelve  hours 
when  first  placed  to  dry.  If  a steam  dryer  is  used,  they  should  first 
be  put  into  a tempering  chamber  and  thoroughly  heated  before  being 
placed  in  the  dryer  where  the  circulation  might  otherwise  remove  the 
moisture  too  rapidly. 

Differential  shrinkage,  caused  by  too  rapid  loss  of  moisture  along 
laminations,  is  another  cause  of  cracks  in  brick.  This  is  a common 
defect  in  certain  clays  used  for  the  manufacture  of  brick  by  the  stiff- 
mud  auger-type  machine.  Frequently  the  laminations  which  remain 
almost  invisible  in  the  air-dried  brick  will  be  greatly  developed  in 
burning,  due  to  the  accumulation  of  gases  along  the  laminae.  They 


IMPERFECTIONS  OF  BRICK. 


145 


are  generally  more  harmful  in  side -cut  brick  than  in  end-cut.  The 
clayjis"generally  too  plastic  and  should  be  tempered  by  the  addition 
of , non-plastic  material.  In  surface  deposits  the  bottom  clays  are 
likely  to  produce  laminae,  and  more  of  the  top  clay  should  be  added. 
Laminations  may  be  at  least  partly  obliterated  by  repressing. 

Irj  The  presence  of  lime  nodules  which  are  calcined  in  burning  fre- 
quently cause  cracking  and  bursting  of  the  brick.  The  heat  and 
stresses  set  up  by  the  hydration  of  the  lime  after  the  brick  leave  the 
kiln  are  the  immediate  causes.  Brick  containing  these  blebs  of  quick 
lime  may  be  taken  from  the  kiln  in  perfect  condition,  but  after  being 
exposed  to  a moist  atmosphere  the  slaking  of  the  lime  will  cause  the 
brick  to  pop  open.  The  product  of  an  entire  kiln  may  thus  be  lost. 
The  amount  of  lime  may  not  be  excessive  if  it  is  ground  fine  and 
thoroughly  mixed  in  the  clay.  The  clay,  however,  could  not  be 
burned  at  a high  temperature  because  of  the  fluxing  action  of  the 
lime.  According  to  Reis,  calcareous  clays  containing  as  high  as  20 
per  cent  of  calcium  carbonate  have  been  successfully  used  in  the 
manufacture  of  clay  wares. 

DEFECTS  OF  COLOR. 

LIGHT  COLOR  IN  RED-BURNING  BRICK. 

Light  color  in  red-burning  brick  may  be  the  result  of  a number 
of  conditions.  The  red  color  of  burned  clay  is  due  to  the  oxidation 
of  the  iron  compounds  in  the  clay.  The  iron  may  be  changed  to 
ferrous  oxide  (FeO)  or  to  ferric  oxide  (Fe203).  Once  changed  to  the 
oxide  condition  it  will  so  remain  until  the  point  of  vitrification  is 
reached,  when  the  iron  may  unite  with  silica  and  form  silicates  of 
iron.  Light-colored  brick  may  result  if  the  total  amount  of  iron  in 
the  clay  is  small.  The  amount  of  iron  in  clays  ranges  from  less  than 
1 per  cent  in  white-burning  clays  to  5 per  cent  or  more  in  red-burning 
cj,ays.  The  clay  may  contain  the  amount  of  iron  requisite  for  a red- 
colored  product  and  yet  the  ware  be  light  in  color  because  it  has  been 
burned  at  a low  temperature. 

The  presence  of  lime  in  a clay  may  cause  a light-colored  product, 
notwithstanding  the  fact  that  a larger  amount  of  iron  is  present  than 
would  produce  a red-colored  ware  under  normal  conditions.  Clay 
No.  32  from  West  Point  contains  8.75  per  cent  of  iron — double  the 


146 


CLAYS  OF  MISSISSIPPI 


amount  necessary,  under  normal  conditions,  to  produce  red  brick. 
The  analysis  of  the  clay  shows  the  presence  of  3.75  per  cent  of  calcium 
oxide.  This  amount  is  abundantly  sufficient  in  this  instance  to  destroy 
the  effect  of  the  iron  oxide  and  produce  a pale  yellow  brick. 

Deficiency  in  the  amount  of  oxygen  during  the  burning  may  be 
the  cause  of  light  colors  in  burned  clay  wares.  If  iron  is  oxidized  in 
an  atmosphere  deficient  in  oxygen  the  ferrous  compound  (FeO)  will 
be  formed.  Ferrous  oxide  produces  a green  color.  Ferric  oxide  is 
red  or  purple.  Oxygen  deficiency  may  arise  from  insufficient  draft 
in  the  kiln.  Not  enough  oxygen  is  supplied  to  form  the  ferric  com- 
pound. The  conditions  may  be  aggravated  by  the  presence  of  car- 
bonaceous matter  in  the  clay.  The  carbon  in  the  process  of  oxidation 
would  rob  the  iron  of  oxygen  and  reduce  it  to  the  ferrous  state. 

EFFLORESCENCE. 

Brick  sometimes  have  their  surfaces  discolored  by  a white  or  yel- 
lowish substance  called  whitewash  or  efflorescence.  This  whitewash 
may  appear  on  the  brick  during  the  process  of  drying.  The  water 
which  comes  from  the  interior  of  the  brick  by  capillary  attraction  is 
evaporated  at  the  surface  and  leaves  behind  its  soluble  salts  which 
form  the  efflorescence. 

Kiln  White. — Brick  which  do  not  develop  any  efflorescence  during 
the  process  of  drying  may  do  so  during  the  burning  period.  The  form 
of  whitewash,  called  kiln-white,  is  composed  of  sulphates  of  calcium, 
magnesium,  potassium,  sodium  and  aluminium.  All  except  the  first 
named  occur  in  very  small  quantities.  These  soluble  salts  may  be 
present  in  the  clay,  they  may  be  in  the  water  used  for  tempering  and 
they  may  be  developed  by  reactions  between  kiln  gases  and  constit- 
uents of  the  clay. 

The  calcium  sulphate  in  clay s^is^often  developed  by  the  oxidation 
of  iron  pyrites  which  produces  sulphuric  acid,  which  in  turn  attacks 
the  calcium  carbonate  of  the  clay  forming  calcium  sulphate.  For  the 
chemical  reaction  which  takes  place  see  page  55,  under  Gypsum. 
This  salt  is  then  deposited  on  the  surface  during  the  drying  process. 
These  salts  are  not  liable  to  occur  in  the  upper  part  of  surface  clay 
deposits  but  they  are  sometimes  abundant  in  residual  clays  formed 
from  limestone,  especially  along  the  line  of  contact. 


IMPERFECTIONS  OF  BRICK. 


147 


Kiln-white  is  also  produced  by  the  union  of  sulphur  dioxide  from 
the  fuel  gases  with  calcium  or  magnesium  in  the  clay  products.  Fre- 
quently the  water  used  in  tempering  clay  is  taken  from  ponds  which 
are  made  on  or  near  limestone  and  clay  contact.  Such  water  is  gener- 
ally the  source  of  efflorescence. 

Wall-White. — Efflorescence  which  appears  upon  the  brick  after  they 
are  placed  in  the  wall  is  termed  wall -white.  Wall-white  is  produced 
by  the  deposition  of  soluble  salts  on  the  surface  of  the  brick  through 
the  evaporation  of  absorbed  water  from  the  interior  of  the  brick. 
These  salts  are  formed  by  chemical  reactions  taking  place  during  the 
process  of  burning.  The  chemical  reactions  are  usually  between  sul- 
phuric acid  derived  from  fuel  gases  and  calcium  or  magnesium  in  the 
clay.  After  the  brick  are  placed  in  the  wall  they  may  absorb  water, 
which  will  take  these  salts  into  solution.  The  salts  are  then  drawn 
to  the  surface  of  the  brick  by  capillarity  and,  when  the  water  is  evap- 
orated, they  are  left  as  a white,  powdery  coating  on  the  surface  of  the 
brick. 

The  following  means  of  prevention  of  kiln-white  have  been  sug- 
gested:* 

“1.  Use  the  clay  before  the  soluble  salts  form,  i.  e.,  unweathered. 
Since  the  sulphates' in  the  clay  nearly  always  result  from  the  weather- 
ing of  its  pyrite,  it  is  often  possible  to  avoid  the  whitewash  simply  by 
using  the  clay  fresh  from  the  bank,  rejecting  that  which  has  been 
exposed  to  the  weather  any  length  of  time.  This  is  only  possible  with 
clays  that  lie  below  the  permanent  water  level.  This  use  of  the  clay, 
however,  leaves  the  pyrite  in  the  clay,  and  as  has  been  shown,  it  will 
sooner  or  later  come  out  as  efflorescence  on  the  walls.  While  the 
manufacturer  is  thus  enabled  to  produce  a clean  brick,  he  is  simply 
passing  the  trouble  on  to  the  user  of  his  wares. 

“2.  Remove  the  soluble  salts  entirely  from  the  clay,  i.  e.,  weather 
it  thoroughly,  thus  causing  the  washing  out  of  the  salt.  Since  the 
whitewashing  salts  are  all  soluble,  or  can  be  rendered  so  by  weathering, 
it  is  possible  to  remove  them  entirely  by  exposing  the  clay  to  the  action 
of  the  air,  rain  and  frost  as  long  as  is  necessary.  As  the  action  is  slow 
and  will  not  penetrate  the  clay  unaided,  the  clay  should  be  spread  in 
thin  layers  and  worked  over  occasionally.  As  the  object  is  to  remove 


♦Jones  in  Brick,  Vol.  XXVI,  p.  89  . 


148 


CLAYS  OF  MISSISSIPPI. 


the  salts  entirely,  the  ground  upon  which  the  clay  is  spread  should 
slope  enough  to  thoroughly  drain  the  water  away  from  the  clay  after 
it  has  done  its  work.  This  process  not  only  removes  the  whitewashing 
salts  but  also  increases  the  plasticity  of  the  clay.  The  process  takes 
several  months  and  is  too  expensive  on  that  account  for  most  brick 
plants. 

“It  is  possible  to  remove  those  soluble  salts  already  formed  in  the 
clay  by  wTashing  it.  In  using  this  process  it  must  be  borne  in  mind 
that  the  object  is  to  remove  the  impurities  and  soluble  salts  and  con- 
sequently a goo d supply  of  water  must  be  at  hand.  In  one  case,  at 
least,  the  water  was  being  used  over  and  over  again  until  gypsum 
crystals  of  good  size  could  be  found  quite  plentifully  in  the  storage 
tank  of  the  washer.  As  in  the  process  of  weathering,  the  washing  not 
only  removes  the  salts  but  gives  a more  homogenous  and  better 
product.  Its  only  disadvantage  is  the  increased  cost,  which  need  not 
be  large,  if  a good  supply  of  water  is  to  be  had. 

“3.  Transform  the  soluble  salts  to  a harmless  form  by  precipita- 
tion. The  method  in  most  common  use  to  transform  the  soluble  into 
insoluble  sulphates  is  to  mix  amounts  of  barium  carbonate  or  chloride 
with  the  clay.  When  either  of  these  salts  is  introduced  into  a clay 
containing  soluble  sulphates,  the  barium  combines  with  the  sulphur 
and  forms  barium  sulphate,  one  of  the  most  insoluble  compounds 
Icnown. 

BaC03  H-  CaS04  = BaS04  + CaC03 
BaCl2  + CaS04  = BaS04  + CaCl2 

“As  the  barium  sulphate  is  very  insoluble  and  is  not  decomposed 
during  the  burning  the  sulphur  is  firmly  locked  in  the  interior  of  the 
brick  as  long  as  the  brick  endures. 

“Barium  carbonate  is  also  a very  insoluble  compound  and  must  be 
ground  finely  and  very  thoroughly  mixed  with  the  clay  to  accomplish 
the  end  that  is  sought.  A German  writer  recommends  that  it  be  ground 
in  a tube  mill  together  with  fine  sand,  which  has  the  effect  of  soon 
reducing  it  to  the  very  fine  powder  that  is  wanted.  The  correct 
amount,  which  necessitates  a chemical  analysis  for  its  determination, 
is  then  added  to  the  clay  as  it  enters  the  pug  mill.  The  carbonate  is 
perfectly  safe  to  use,  as  neither  an  excess  of  the  barium  nor  the  cal- 
cium carbonate  formed  will  cause  efflorescence.  Its  success  depends 


IMPERFECTIONS  OF  BRICK. 


149 


upon  the  thoroughness  with  which  it  is  ground  and  mixed  with  the 

clay. 

“The  chloride,  on  the  other  hand,  is  soluble  and  consequently  does 
not  need  much  care  in  grinding  and  mixing.  As  it  is  soluble,  it  is 
rather  dangerous  to  use,  for  any  excess  is  carried  to  the  surface  of  the 
brick  and  forms  there  a whitewash  with  the  sulphur  in  the  kiln  gases. 
Its  by-product,  calcium  chloride,  is  also  soluble  and  is  liable  to  form 
whitewash  in  the  same  way.  The  Germans  frequently  use  both  the 
carbonate  and  the  chloride,  adding  enough  of  the  chloride  to  overcome 
most  of  the  whitewash,  and  depending  upon  the  carbonate  to  take 
care  of  whatever  whitewashing  salts  remain. 

“4.  Prevent  the  concentration  of  the  salts  on  the  surface  of  the 
brick  by  rapid  firing.  It  is  often  possible  when  clay  shows  a tendency 
to  whitewash,  to  hold  the  whitewash  inside  the  brick  by  drying  as 
quickly  as  possible.  The  mechanics  of  this  is  simple,  and  depends  on 
the  property  of  capillary  tubes.  When  the  brick  is  dried  quickly  the 
water  is  evaporated  before  the  salt  reaches  the  surface  in  sufficient 
quantities  to  cause  trouble.  When  the  clay  will  not  permit  of  rapid 
drying  the  method  cannot  be  used. 

“5.  Remove  the  whitewash  in  the  kiln  by  the  use  of  a reducing 
flame.  The  sulphates  once  formed  cannot  be  decomposed  or  removed 
in  an  oxidizing  flame  at  any  temperature  ordinarily  reached  in  the 
kiln.  In  a reducing  flame  the  sulphates  are  reduced  at  temperatures 
of  1,832°  F.  to  sulphides.  The  bases  enter  into  combination  with  the 
silicates  of  the  brick,  while  the  sulphur  is  driven  off  with  the  gases. 
By  the  use  of  this  principle  it  is  possible  to  drive  off  the  whitewash 
by  finishing  the  burn  under  reducing  conditions.  This  has  the  dis- 
advantage of  darkening  the  color  of  the  brick  and  also  causing  the 
slagging  of  the  iron  into  a ferrous  silicate,  thus  starting  fusion  pre- 
maturely. 

“6.  Coat  the  brick  with  some  combustible  substance  that  will 
remove  the  whitewash  as  it  burns  off.  A method  in  vogue  in  Ger- 
many is  to  coat  the  brick  on  the  face,  as  they  leave  the  machine,  with 
coal  tar  or  wheat  flour.  As  this  burns  away  it  has  a strong  reducing 
action  and  removes  the  whitewash  as  just  explained.” 


150 


CLAYS  OF  MISSISSIPPI. 


DEFECTS  OF  STRUCTURE. 

LAMINATIONS. 

The  laminations  often  occurring  in  stiff-mud  brick  are  produced 
by  the  auger.  The  clay  as  it  is  forced  over  the  smooth  surface  of  the 
auger  receives  polished  surfaces  which  may  have  failed  to  adhere  per- 
fectly when  the  clay  is  forced  through  the  die.  Then  there  is  a differ- 
ential movement  of  the  clay  through  the  die.  The  clay  in  the  center 
of  the  die  moves  faster  than  at  the  sides  because  of  the  friction  of  the 
clay  against  the  walls  of  the  die.  This  differential  movement  also 
tends  to  increase  laminations.  This  form  of  imperfection  is  more 
pronounced  in  plastic  clays.  If  the  bonding  power  of  the  clay  is 
adequate,  non-plastic  material  may  be  added  to  remedy  the  defect. 
The  laminations  may  not  be  perceptible  when  the  brick  are  first  taken 
from  the  machine.  During  the  process  of  drying  the  moisture  will 
escape  more  freely  along  the  lines  of  the  laminations  and  the  differ- 
ential shrinkage  so  produced  causes  the  “shells’*  of  clay  to  separate. 

Repressing,  while  not  always  completely  destroying  laminations, 
may  greatly  improve  the  quality  of  the  brick. 

GRANULATIONS. 

There  is  a tendency  for  certain  plastic  clays  to  granulate  in  the 
grinding  process.  Instead  of  forming  a dust-like  powder,  they  roll 
up  into  shot-like  grains.  If  the  clay  is  mixed  with  water  these  granules 
may  be  destroyed.  If,  however  the  clay  is  used  in  the  dry-press 
methods  of  molding,  the  granules  are  not  destroyed  in  the  process  of 
molding  and  may  cause  an  imperfect  product.  In  the  burning  of  the 
clay  these  granules  may  not  unite  unless  the  temperature  of  the  brick 
is  raised  to  the  point  of  vitrification  when  the  granules  soften  and  unite. 
When  the  brick  are  not  brought  to  this  degree  of  temperature,  incip- 
ient fusion  of  the  outer  side  of  the  brick  may  cause  a union  of  the 
granules,  while  the  granules  upon  the  inside  are  but  indifferently 
united.  The  cross-breaking  strength  and  the  tensile  strength  of  such 
a brick  are  very  much  impaired. 

One  remedy  would  be  to  insure  absolutely  dry  conditions  of  the 
clay  before  grinding.  Use  a fine-mesh  screen  to  eliminate  larger 
granules,  or  mix  thoroughly  with  a clay  of  lower  fusibility. 


IMPERFECTIONS  OF  BRICK. 


151 


SERRATIONS* 

In  the  manufacture  of  stiff-mud  brick  the  edges  of  the  bars  of 
clay  are  sometimes  serrated  as  they  come  from  the  die.  The  serrations 
are  caused  by  friction  of  the  bar  against  the  corners  of  the  die.  The 
same  amount  of  friction  may  cause  serrations  in  one  clay  and  not  in 
another.  The  bonding  power  of  the  latter  is  greater  than  that  of  the 
former.  The  friction  between  the  bar  and  the  clay  may  be  partly 
overcome  by  the  use  of  oil,  steam  or  soap  suds.  Sometimes  brick 
coming  from  the  die  contain  serrations  which  are  not  very  noticeable, 
but  develop  during  drying.  Repressing  will  in  a large  measure  over- 
come serrations  in  brick. 


BRITTLENESS* 

Brittleness  in  brick  is  caused  by  too  rapid  cooling.  After  a kiln 
of  hard  brick  is  burned,  it  ought  to  be  closed  up  and  allowed  to  cool 
gradually.  Gradual  cooling  toughens  the  brick  and  prevents  brittle- 
ness. Clay  conducts  the  heat  so  slowly  that  if  the  brick  are  cooled 
too  rapidly  internal  stresses  are  set  up  which  rupture  them.  Hard 
brick  usually  require  from  six  to  nine  days  for  cooling.  Wheeler 
thinks  that  far  better  results  would  be  obtained  by  allowing  twice  that 
amount  of  time  for  cooling. 


CHAPTER  VIII. 


GEOLOGY  OF  HISSISSIPPI  CLAYS. 


The  following  table  shows  the  geological  formations  represented 
in  the  State,  the  oldest  rocks  being  at  the  bottom  and  the  youngest 
at  the  top. 

GEOLOGICAL  FORMATIONS  OF  MISSISSIPPI. 


Quaternary 


Cenozoic  ..  <! 


Tertiary , 


Recent  deposits. 
Columbia. 

Loess. 

Natchez. 

Lafayette. 


Miocene? — Grand  Gulf. 


Oligiocene — Vicksburg . 

Jackson. 
Eocene..  Claiborne. 

Wilcox. 
Midway. 


Mesozoic.. . .Cretaceous 


Paleozoic . 


Sub -carboniferous  (Mississippian) . 
Devonian. 


Ripley. 

Selma  chalk. 

Eutaw  (Tombigbee). 
Tuscaloosa. 


PALEOZOIC 

DEVONIAN. 

The  oldest  rocks  of  the  State  are  of  Devonian  age.  They  form  an 
outcrop  alung  the  western  bank  of  the  Tennessee  River  and  along  the 
lower  courses  of  some  of  its  small  tributaries  in  Tishomingo  County. 


154 


CLAYS  OF  MISSISSIPPI. 


The  rocks  of  these  exposures  consist  of  dark  blue  limestones  with  an 
over-burden  of  fossiliferous  cherts  and  shales.  The  underlying  rocks, 
as  shown  by  well  records,  consist  of  limestones,  sandstones  and  shales 

SUB-CARBONIFEROUS  (MISSISSIPPIAN). 

The  rocks  of  the  sub-carboniferous  consist  of  limestones,  cherts, 
shales  and  sandstones.  They  are  of  marine  deposition  and  overlie 
the  Devonian  rocks.  Exposures  of  the  rocks  are  numerous  along  the 
courses  of  Big  Bear  Creek  and  other  streams  in  the  eastern  part  of 
Tishomingo  and  Itawamba  Counties.  In  some  places  the  chert  layer 
has  disintegrated  into  a very  fine  white  silicious  powder  (tripoli) 
having  the  following  composition: 

TABLE  27. 

ANALYSIS  OF  TRIPOLI  FROM  THE  SUB-CARBONIFEROUS  NEAR 
EASTPORT. 


Constituent  Per  cent 

Moisture  (HjO) 0.20 

Volatile  matter  (COj  etc.) ‘0.41 

Silicon  dioxide  (SiOj) 97.23 

Iron  oxide  (Fe20») 0.60 

Aluminum  oxide  (AI2O1) 0.30 

Calcium  oxide  (CaO) 0.45 

Magnesium  oxide  (MgO) 0.54 

Sulphur  trioxide  (SO3) 0.20 


Total 99.93 


Near  Bear  Creek,  on  the  Candler  place,  a mine  has  been  opened 
in  tripoli,  where  the  bed  has  a thickness  of  15  or  20  feet.  The  over- 
burden consists  of  cherts  with  partings  of  tripoli.  The  mine  is  not 
now  in  operation. 

The  limestone  which  underlies  the  chert  and  outcrops  in  the  bed 
of  a creek  at  old  Eastport  is  blue  to  gray  in  color  and  occurs  in  layers 
varying  from  12  to  15  inches.  The  chemical  properties  are  given  in 
the  analysis  below. 

TABLE  28. 


ANALYSIS  OF  EASTPORT  LIMESTONE. 

Constituent 

Moisture  (H2O) 

Volatile  matter  (COj  etc.) 

Silicon  dioxide  (Si02) 

Iron  oxide  (Fe20s) 

Aluminum  oxide  (AI2O3) 

Calcium  oxide  (CaO) 

Magnesium  oxide  (MgO) 

Sulphur  trioxide  (SO3) 


Per  cent 
0.40 
5.06 
43.18 
3.13 
3.43 
39.47 
3.19 
2.23 


Total 


100.09 


GEOLOGY  OF  MISSISSIPPI  CLAYS. 


155 


A sample  of  blue  limestone  belonging  to  the  sub-carboniferous 
formation  was  taken  from  a ledge  having  a thickness  of  6 feet  at  Cypress 
Pond  near  Mingo.  This  is  a compact,  hard  blue  limestone  with  a 
chemical  composition  as  recorded  below.  It  lies  above  the  cherts 
mentioned  above. 

TABLE  29. 

ANALYSIS  OF  CYPRESS  POND  LIMESTONE. 


Constituent  Per  cent 

Moisture  (H2O) 1.10 

Volatile  matter  (CO2  etc.) 27.00 

Silicon  dioxide  (Si02) 10.91 

Iron  oxide  (Fe203) 5.00 

Aluminum  oxide  (AI2O3) 8.71 

Calcium  oxide  (CaO) 47.06 

Magnesium  oxide  (MgO) 0.16 

Sulphur  trioxide  (SO3) 0.85 


Total 100.25 


At  Mingo  Bridge  on  Bear  Creek  the  following  section  of  sub-carbon- 
iferous rock  are  exposed: 

1.  Black  shale  containing  lenticular  masses  of  clay- 

stone 12  feet 

2.  Limestone  containing  a large  number  of  fossils . . 5 “ 

The  shale  in  No.  1 weathers  into  thin  plates  and  the  carbonate  of 
iron  is  oxidized,  producing  a red  coloration.  The  chemical  composi- 
tion is  given  below. 

TABLE  30. 

ANALYSIS  OF  MINGO  SHALE. 


Constituent  Per  cent 

Moisture  (H2O) 2.30 

Volatile  matter  (CO2  etc.) 13.30- 

Silicon  dioxide  (Si02) 54.46 

Iron  oxide  (Fe20s) 12.50 

Aluminum  oxide  (AI2O3) 14.92 

Calcium  oxide  (CaO) 2.56 

Magnesium  oxide  (MgO) 0.00 

Sulphur  trioxide  (SOs) 0.85 


Total 100.89 


MESOZOIC. 

CRETACEOUS. 

Tuscaloosa. — The  rocks  of  the  Tuscaloosa  formation  in  Mississippi 
consist  of  basal  gravels,  laminated  clays  and  gray  sands.  Beds  of 
lignite  also  occur  in  the  formation.  Many  of  the  clays  are  white  and 


156 


CLAYS  OF  MISSISSIPPI. 


extremely  aluminous  in  composition.  Some  of  the  clays  are  stained 
with  an  oxide  of  iron  to  such  an  extent  as  to  form  an  ochre.  The 
composition  of  a sample  from  R.  F.  Thorne’s  place,  6 miles  north 
of  Iuka,  is  given  below: 

TABLE  31. 

ANALYSIS  OF  OCHEROUS  CLAY  FROM  THE  TUSCALOOSA,  SIX  MILES 
NORTH  OF  IUKA. 

Constituent  Per  cent 

Moisture  (H*0) 0.87 

Volatile  matter  (CO.  etc.) 11.96 

Silicon  dioxide  (Si02) 38.11 

Iron  oxide  (FejOj) 11.73 

Aluminum  oxide  (AljOj) 36.42 

Calcium  oxide  (CaO) 0.60 

Magnesium  oxide  (MgO) 0.14 

Sulphur  trioxide  (SOa) trace 


Total 99.82 

At  Penniwinkle  Hill,  about  4 miles  south  of  Iuka,  the  following 

geological  section  is  exposed: 

Section  at  Penniwinkle  Hill. 

Feet 

Blue  micaceous  clay  weathering  to  yellow  (top) 5 

Gray,  laminated,  micaceous  clay  with  thin  ironstone  layers  20 
White,  unlaminated  but  jointed  clay 15 

The  first  bed  from  the  top  probably  forms  a transition  to  the 
Lafayette  which  lies  on  the  crest  of  the  hill.  The  clay  at  the  base  is 
probably  Tuscaloosa,  though  its  determination  is  based  entirely  on 
stratigraphic  conditions.  The  chemical  composition  of  a sample  of 
the  clay  from  the  white  layer  at  the  base  is  as  follows: 

TABLE  32. 

ANALYSIS  OF  CLAY  FROM  PENNIWINKLE  HILL. 

Constituent  Per  cent 

Moisture  (H20) 1.09 

Volatile  matter  (C02  etc.) 7.34 

Silicon  dioxide  (Si02) 68.65 

Iron  oxide  (Fe2Oj) 2.77 

Aluminum  oxide  (Al2Os) 18.99 

Calcium  oxide  (CaO) .20 

Magnesium  oxide  (MgO) .20 

Sulphur  trioxide  (SO3) trace 


Total 


99.24 


Plate  XXII. 


EUTAW  SANDS  ON  TOMBIGBEE  RIVER,  COLUMBUS. 


GEOLOGY  OF  MISSISSIPPI  CLAYS. 


157 


Some  of  the  white  clays  of  the  Tuscaloosa  formation  contain  a large 
quantity  of  tripoli  from  the  subcarboniferous.  Its  white  color  and 
extreme  fineness  of  grain  conceal  its  presence  from  ordinary  observa- 
tion, but  chemical  determinations  reveal  it.  The  following  table  of 
analyses  gives  the  chemical  properties  of  a number  of  these  clays: 

TABLE  33. 


ANALYSES  OF  TUSCALOOSA  CLAYS  FROM  TISHOMINGO  COUNTY. 


No.  1 

No.  2 

No.  3 

No.  4 

No.  5 

No.  6 

No.  7 

Moisture  (H2O) 

.58 

.58 

.48 

.59 

1.18 

.48 

1.11 

Volatile  matter  (CO2) . . 

5.20 

4.78 

4.82 

8.00 

6.39 

15.01 

13.88 

Silicon  dioxide  (SiC>2)  ■ 

70.81 

79.23 

80.03 

66.85 

71.03 

44.23 

42.92 

Iron  oxide  (Fe2C>3) . . . . 

11.20 

.67 

1.68 

3.77 

.56 

.81 

.61 

Aluminum  oxideCALOs)!!  .20 

13.91 

12.00 

20.54 

20.29 

38.82 

41.30 

Calcium  oxide  (CaO) . . 

.60 

.59 

.26 

.21 

.20 

.19 

.37 

Magnesium  oxide(MgO) 

.50 

.21 

.00 

.18 

.13 

.13 

.13 

Sulphur  trioxide(S03) . 

trace 

trace 

trace 

trace 

.25 

.45 

.18 

Total 100.09 

99.97 

99.27 

100.14 

99.98 

100.12 

100.57 

Clay  No.  1 is  from  the  public  road  near  the  fish  pond  at  luka. 
No.  2 is  from  the  public  road  2 miles  south  of  Old  Eastport.  No.  3 
is  from  the  R.  W.  Peden  farm,  and  No.  4 is  from  the  Jas.  Turner  farm. 
Nos.  5,  6 and  7 were  collected  by  Dr.  F.  T.  Carmack  from  near  Tisho- 
mingo city. 

Eutaw  (Tombigbee). — The  Eutaw  formation  consists  of  greenish 
colored  sands  containing,  in  some  localities,  indurated  layers  of 
irregularly  bedded  sandstones,  and  in  other  places  thin  laminae  of 
clay.  The  sands  are  micaceous  and  contain  some  calcareous  matter 
which  increases  in  amount  toward  the  upper  horizon  where  it  passes  by 
a gradual  transition  into  the  overlying  Selma  chalk.  The  upper  beds 
are  abundantly  fossiliferous.  The  lower  beds  are  less  fossiliferous  and 
contain  irregular  masses  of  indurated  materials  and  lenticular  bodies 
of  iron  sulphide.  Lignite  and  lignitic  clays  are  not  of  infrequent 
occurrence  in  the  lower  beds. 

Typical  exposures  of  the  fossiliferous  strata  are  to  be  found  along 
the  bluffs  of  the  Tombigbee  River  from  Amory  to  Columbus.  The 
river,  sinking  its  channel  into  the  soft  rocks  of  the  Eutaw,  traces  the 
western  boundary  of  the  formation  across  the  northeastern  part  of 
the  State.  The  Eutaw  forms  the  chief  water-bearing  stratum  for  the 
northeastern  prairie  belt,  and  its  collecting  ground  is  along  the  Tom- 
bigbee River  basin. 


158 


CLAYS  OF  MISSISSIPPI. 


Selma  Chalk  ( rotten  limestone). — The  rock  of  the  Selma  chalk  is  for 
the  most  part  a fine-grained  cretaceous  limestone.  On  unweathered 
surfaces  it  has  a bluish  tint ; on  weathered  areas  it  is  white  in  color. 
Thin  layers  of  crinoidal  limestone  and  lenticular  sandstone  masses  are 
occasionally  encountered.  Thin  seams  of  asphaltum  and  nodular 
forms  of  iron  pyrites  occur  in  some  outcrops.  The  amount  of  calcium 
carbonate  in  the  formation  varies,  but  in  general  it  increases  toward 
the  southern  portion  of  the  area.  The  thickness  also  increases  toward 
the  south,  being  about  75  feet  at  the  northern  line  of  the  State  and 
reaching  a thickness  of  about  1,000  feet  near  its  southern  limit. 

The  transition  from  the  underlying  arenaceous  Eutaw  to  the 
highly  calcareous  Selma  is  gradual,  so  that  the  lowermost  bed  of  the 
latter  contains  a large  percentage  of  sand  and  a correspondingly  small 
amount  of  calcium  carbonate.  Both  vertically  and  horizontally  the 
chalk  varies  in  the  amount  of  clay  which  it  contains.  In  some  places 
the  formation  contains  as  much  as  16  per  cent  of  alumina.  The  white 
rock,  the  weathered  product  of  the  blue,  naturally  contains  more  clay 
than  the  unweathered  rock,  since  some  of  the  calcium  carbonate  has 
been  removed  during  the  process  of  weathering  and  the  insoluble 
aluminum  silicate  left  behind. 


TABLE  34. 

ANALYSES  OF  SELMA  CHALK. 


No.  1 

Moisture  (H2O) 1.10 

Volatile  matter  (CO2) 34.20 

Silicon  dioxide  (SiOj) 18.70 

Iron  oxide  (Fe20s) 6.00 

Aluminum  oxide  (AI2O3) .00 

Calcium  oxide  (CaO) 45.62 

Magnesium  oxide  (MgO) 1.72 

Sulphur  trioxide  (SO3) 1.11 


Total 98.45 


No.  2 

No.  3 

No.  4 

No.  5 

No.  6 

.94 

1.08 

.40 

1.50 

2.75 

42.05 

27.10 

25.60 

24.50 

22.61 

9.84 

14.84 

25.27 

29.98 

32.81 

2.58 

4.50 

10.35 

5.60 

4.65 

.19 

15.59 

4.81 

5.45 

11.15 

38.65 

32.89 

32.85 

31.62 

22.69 

.18 

.41 

.84 

.14 

1.53 

2.05 

3.30 

.32 

.21 

1.55 

96.48 

99.71 

100.64 

99.02 

99.74 

Sample  No.  1 is  from  Okolona,  Chickasaw  County;  Nos.  2,  4 and  5 
are  from  Oktibbeha  County;  No.  3 is  from  Tupelo,  Lee  County,  and 
No.  6 is  from  West  Point,  Clay  County.  The  majority  of  these  samples 
contain  clay,  the  per  cent  ranging  from  .48  to  39.44.  They  also  con- 
tain some  sand.  The  greater  number  of  these  samples  were  taken 
from  the  surface  of  the  limestone  where  weathering  processes  have 
caused  a considerable  loss  of  calcium  carbonate.  Some  unweathered 


GEOLOGY  OF  MISSISSIPPI  CLAYS. 


159 


specimens  of  chalk  have  exhibited  more  than  90  per  cent  of  lime- 
The  weathering  of  the  limestone  has  produced  the  main  supply  of 
brick  clay  of  the  Selma  area. 

Ripley. — Overlying  the  Selma  chalk  and  bordering  the  north- 
western portion  of  its  outcrop  are  the  marls  of  the  Ripley.  In  some 
places  the  chief  component  of  the  marl  is  clay.  They  are  generally 
highly  fossiliferous  and  greenish  in  color,  due  to  the  presence  of  glau- 
conite. In  some  exposures  there  are  thinly  bedded  arenaceous  lime- 
stones. The  composition  of  one  of  these  arenaceous  rocks  from 
Tippah  County  is  given  below. 

TABLE  35. 

ANALYSIS  OF  RIPLEY  SANDSTONE. 

Moisture  (H2O) 3.94 

Volatile  matter  (CO2) 1.82 

Silicon  dioxide  (Si02) 82.95 

Iron  oxide  (Fe203) 6.50 

Aluminum  oxide  ( AI2O3) .87 

Calcium  oxide  (CaO) 2.00 

Magnesium  oxide  (MgO) .54 

Sulphur  trioxide  (SO3) .60 

Total 99.22 

Near  the  old  mill  in  the  northern  part  of  the  town  of  Ripley  the 
following  section  is  exposed: 

Section  of  Ripley  in  the  Town  of  Ripley. 

Feet 

4.  Yellow  to  brown  loam 4 

3.  Gray  clay 3 

2.  White  shally  rock 2 

1.  Fossiliferous  green  sand 10 

The  gray  clay  from  No.  3 has  the  chemical  composition  recorded 
in  the  following  analysis: 

TABLE  36. 

ANALYSIS  OF  CLAY,  RIPLEY. 

Moisture  (H2O) 8.23 

Volatile  matter  (CO2  etc.) 3.96 

Silicon  dioxide  (Si02) 67.10 

Iron  oxide  (Fe20s) 6.60 

Aluminum  oxide  (AI2O3) 10.96 

Calcium  oxide  (CaO) 1.87 

Magnesium  oxide  (MgO) .54 

Sulphur  trioxide  (SO3) .51 


Total 


99.77 


160 


CLAYS  OF  MISSISSIPPI. 


CENOZOIC. 

TERTIARY. 

Eocene. 

The  eocene  of  Mississippi  is  composed  of  the  following  stages: 
Midway,  Wilcox,  Claiborne  and  Jackson. 

Midway. — The  Midway  is  composed  of  two  formations,  the  Clayton 
limestones  and  the  Porter’s  Creek  (Flatwoods)  clays.  The  latter  are 
gray  laminated  and  somewhat  shaly  clays.  Some  of  the  lowermost 
beds  contain  small  white  concretions  of  irregular  shape  and  usually  of 
small  size.  In  the  upper  beds,  layers  of  ironstone  concretions  abound. 
These  are  usually  lens-shaped  masses;  some  are  irregular  in  form. 
Occasionally  the  lens-like  masses  form  a continuous  layer  which  per- 
sists for  several  rods.  The  clay  is  frequently  micaceous.  It  is  exceed- 
ingly fine-grained  and  highly  silicious,  containing  as  much  as  70  per 
cent  of  silicon  dioxide.  The  Flatwoods  clay  is  exceedingly  sticky  and 
the  wagon  roads  across  its  outcrop  are  kept  in  condition  wi-th  great 
difficulty.  Though  of  highly  silicious  character,  the  grains  of  silica 
are  exceedingly  small  so  that  they  are  not  detected  by  ordinary 
methods  of  observation. 

The  following  table  shows  the  analyses  of  some  samples  of  the 
Flatwoods  clays: 

TABLE  37. 

ANALYSES  OF  FLATWOOD  CLAYS. 


No.  1 

No.  2 

No.  3 

No.  4 

Moisture  (H2O) 

2.97 

4.50 

5.65 

4.95 

Volatile  matter  (CO2  etc.) 

3.91 

7.77 

5.04 

9.05 

Silicon  dioxide  (SiC>2) 

75.60 

61.62 

71.47 

65.60 

Iron  oxide  (Fe20j) 

....  . 8.24 

15.29 

6.97 

7.20 

Aluminum  oxide  (AI2O8) 

7.00 

.87 

9.45 

10.50 

Calcium  oxide  (CaO) 

1.20 

.81 

.40 

1.12 

Magnesium  oxide  (MgO) 

67 

.69 

.63 

.60 

Total 

99.83 

99.74 

99.98 

Clays  Nos.  1 and  4 are  from  Oktibbeha  County;  No.  2 is  from 
Winston  County,  and  No.  3 is  from  Noxubee  County. 

Wilcox  {Lagrange). — The  Wilcox  formation  consists  of  sands  and 
clays  with  intercalated  beds  of  lignite.  The  sands  are  for  the  most 
part  unconsolidated  sediments,  though  occasionally  irregular  masses 
of  sandstone  or  ironstone  appear  in  the  outcrops  of  its  strata.  The 


GEOLOGY  OF  MISSISSIPPI  CLAYS. 


161 


sands  are  very  much  cross-bedded  and  inter-bedded  with  thin  seams 
of  clay.  The  colors  are  variegated.  In  many  places,  thick  beds  of 
pink  or  white  pottery  clays  are  present. 

In  the  upper  portion  of  the  formation  there  are  beds  of  shale-like 
clay  of  a dark  color.  The  clays  have  a low  specific  gravity  and  are 
fine  in  grain. 

There  is  an  outcrop  of  these  clays  in  the  bank  of  the  Yalobusha 
River,  at  Grenada.  The  bed  has  a thickness  of  about  40  feet.  The 
chemical  composition  of  a sample  of  the  clay  is  given  below: 

TABLE  38. 

ANALYSIS  OF  WILCOX  CLAY.  GRENADA. 


Moisture  (H2O) 5.91 

Volatile  matter  (CO2) 8.75 

Silicon  dioxide  (Si02) 61.80 

Iron  oxide  (Fe20s) 3.88 

Aluminum  oxide  (AI2O3) 16.50 

Calcium  oxide  (CaO) 1.00 

Magnesium  oxide  (MgO) .23 

Sulphur  trioxide  (SO3) .19 


Total 


98.26 


The  pink  and  the  white  clays  of  the  lower  and  middle  horizons  of 
the  Wilcox  are  used  in  a number  of  counties  in  the  manufacture  of 
stoneware.  The  following  table  gives  the  analyses  of  some  of  the 
pottery  clays: 

TABLE  39. 

ANALYSES  OF  WILCOX  POTTERY  CLAYS. 


No.  1 

Moisture  (H2O) 66 

Volatile  matter  (CO2  etc.) 7.25 

Silicon  dioxide  (Si02) 62.41 

Iron  oxide  (Fe203) 2.80 

Aluminum  oxide  (AI2O3) 24.02 

Calcium  oxide  (CaO) 57 

Magnesium  oxide  (MgO) 50 

Sulphur  trioxide  (SO3) 56 


Total 98.97 


No.  2 

No.  3 

No.  4 

No.  5 

No.  6 

1.84 

1.92 

.62 

.23 

1.47 

8.23 

7.66 

7.02 

4.81 

9.24 

60.78 

63.56 

64.86 

75.78 

59.82 

3.52 

2.83 

4.19 

3.56 

1.26 

24.12 

21.92 

20.70 

14.11 

27.19 

.73 

.48 

.69 

.54 

.49 

.38 

.62 

.59 

.52 

.37 

.38 

.28 

trace 

.00 

.31 

99.98 

99.29 

98.67 

99.55 

100.16 

Clays  Nos.  1,  2 and  3 are  from  Marshall  County;  Nos.  4 and  5 
are  from  Lafayette  County;  No.  6 is  from  Webster  County. 

Claiborne. — The  rocks  of  the  Claiborne  are  divided  into  Tallahatta 
buhrstone  (Siliceous  Claiborne),  Lisbon,  and  the  undifferentiated 
Claiborne. 


5 


162 


CLAYS  OF  MISSISSIPPI. 


The  Tallahatta  buhrstone  is  composed  of  hard  white  quartz  rocks 
with  impure  calcareous  sandstones  and  claystones.  In  some  localities 
the  formation  consists  of  ferruginous  sands,  but  slightly  cemented 
and  containing  numerous  fossils.  In  other  localities  the  sandstones 
are  cherty  in  character,  with  thin  layers  inter-bedded  with  sandy 
clays.  The  white  quartz  rock  constitutes  one  of  our  best  road  metals. 
Unfortunately  very  little  of  it  has  been  used  in  this  State.  During 
1906,  100  carloads  were  shipped  from  West  to  Louisiana  to  be  used 
in  street  pavement  work. 

The  Lisbon  is  composed  of  white  sands  containing  calcareous 
material,  greenish  marls,  and  lignitic  clays.  The  calcareous  beds  are 
highly  fossiliferous.  Species  of  the  genera  Ostrea  and  Pecten  are  the 
most  abundant  fossils.  Between  the  Lisbon  beds  and  the  Jackson 
formation  is  a great  thickness  of  undifferentiated  Claiborne. 

Jackson. — The  Jackson  formation  is  composed  of  clays,  marls  and 
sands.  The  clays  in  some  outcrops  contain  the  bones  of  Zeuglodon, 
an  extinct  marine  animal  of  huge  size.  Aggregates  of  selenite  crystals 
are  abundant  in  some  layers.  The  marls  are  very  generally  fossil- 
iferous. The  sands  are  sometimes  interbedded  with  lignitic  clays  or 
lignite. 

The  outcrop  of  the  Jackson  and  the  Vicksburg  forms  the  central 
prairie  belt  of  the  State. 

At  Morton,  there  is  an  exposure  of  the  upper  Jackson  beds  which 
has  the  following  stratigraphy: 

Section  of  Upper  Jackson  Beds  at  Morton. 

Feet 


5.  Grayish  clay  in  thin  layers 5 

4.  Lignite  and  lignitic  clay 6 

3.  White  sand  with  clay  partings 15 


And  at  a lower  level : 

Feel 

2.  Layers  of  yellow  sand  and  gray  clay 20 

1.  Gray  clay 6 


On  the  south  side  of  the  ridge  where  the  above-mentioned  exposure 
occurs,  the  following  section  is  exposed: 

3.  Orange  sand  with  gravel  and  ironstone  (Lafayette). 

2.  Clay  with  purple  clay  stones  (Grand  Gulf?). 

1.  Gray  laminated  clay  with  selenite  crystals  (Jackson). 


GEOLOGY  OF  MISSISSIPPI  CLAYS. 


163 


At  Barnett,  a yellow  laminated  clay  streaked  with  blue,  has  a 
thickness  of  at  least  25  feet.  The  clay  contains  crystals  of  selenite 
and  fossils.  It  has  the  following  chemical  properties: 


TABLE  40. 

ANALYSIS  OF  BARNETT  CLAY. 


Moisture  (H2O) 

Volatile  matter  (CO2  etc.) 

Silicon  dioxide  (Si02) 

Aluminum  oxide  (AI2O3) . 

Iron  oxide  (Fe20$) 

Calcium  oxide  (CaO) 

Magnesium  oxide  (MgO)  . . 
Sulphur  trioxide  (SO3) 


5.55 

13.80 

38.75 

22.83 

3.14 

14.25 

1.01 

trace 


Total 


99.33 


Oligocene. 

Vicksburg. — The  line  of  outcrop  of  the  Vicksburg  parallels  the 
Jackson  on  the  South.  Its  rocks  are  limestones  and  marls.  Typical 
exposures  occur  in  the  bluffs  of  the  river  at  Vicksburg.  In  the 
exposures  along  the  river  front,  there  are  five  or  six  layers  of  limestone 
interbedded  with  marl  and  clay.  They  overlie  dark  colored  clays 
and  sands.  The  limestone  varies  in  thickness  in  the  different  ledges 
and  even  in  the  same  ledge.  The  individual  layers  are  from  1 to  6 
feet  thick.  The  following  table  gives  the  chemical  composition  of 
Vicksburg  limestone  from  a number  of  exposures: 

TABLE  41. 


ANALYSES  OF  VICKSBURG  LIMESTONE. 


No.  1 

No.  2 

No  3 

No.  4 

Moisture  (H2O) 

40 

1.00 

1.79 

2.10 

Volatile  matter  (CO2  etc.) 

37.22 

35.20 

35.40 

33.16 

Silicon  dioxide  (Si02) 

7.08 

7.31 

6.77 

14.88 

Iron  oxide  (Fe20s) 

2.50 

4.00 

2.00 

3.59 

Aluminum  oxide  (AI2O3) 

61 

13.66 

4.68 

5.70 

Calcium  oxide  (CaO) 

50.44 

36.62 

45.51 

36.86 

Magnesium  oxide  (MgO) 

1.07 

.29 

.64 

.99 

Sulphur  trioxide  (SO3) 

38 

2.78 

3.00 

.24 

Total 

99.70 

100.86 

99.79 

97.72 

Sample  No.  1 is  from  Warren  County;  No.  2 and  No.  3 are  from 
Wayne  County,  and  No.  4 is  from  Rankin  County. 

At  Brandon,  in  Rankin  County,  there  are  some  excellent  exposures 
of  Vicksburg  limestone.  On  the  Robinson  place,  4 miles  southeast 


164 


CLAYS  OF  MISSISSIPPI. 


of  Brandon,  there  is  a stone  quarry  in  which  six  layers  of  limestone 
are  found  interbedded  with  marl  in  the  following  stratigraphic  order: 

Section  of  Vicksburg  at  Robinson  Quarry , near  Brandon. 


Feet 

13.  Soil  and  decomposed  rock 2 

12.  Limestone 1-1  i 

11.  Marl 1 

10.  Limestone 2 

9.  Marl 2 

8.  Limestone 11 

7.  Marl 11 

6.  Limestone 11-2 

5.  Marl 2 

4.  Limestone 2 

3.  Marl 1} 

2.  Limestone 2 

1.  Marl 2 


The  limestone  is  bluish  on  fresh  fractures  but  weathers  white. 
It  is  fossiliferous,  containing  abundant  evidence  of  marine  life. 

Miocene. 

Grand  Gulf. — In  Mississippi,  the  Grand  Gulf  formation  is  made  up 
of  gray,  clayey  sandstones,  white  quartz  rocks  and  clays.  The  latter 
contain  considerable  organic  matter  and  are  of  a dark  color  in  many 
areas.  The  Pascagoula  is  thought  by  some  to  be  a part  of  the  Grand 
Gulf.  Samples  of  silicious  claystones  of  the  Grand  Gulf  have  been 
analyzed  with  the  following  results: 

TABLE  42. 


ANALYSES  OF  GRAND  GULF  CLAYSTONES. 


Per 

cent  

No.  1 

No.  2 

No.  3 

No.  4 

Moisture  (H2O) 

3.59 

.74 

.75 

• .50 

Volatile  matter  (CO2  etc.) 

.....  2.93 

1.51 

3.50 

.38 

Silicon  dioxide  (Si02) 

77.44 

92.13 

81.85 

88.11 

Iron  oxide  (Fe203) 

4.17 

1.61 

3.00 

4.00 

Aluminum  oxide  (AI2O3) 

11.09 

2.96 

8.32 

5.81 

Calcium  oxide  (CaO) 

53 

.54 

.82 

.56 

Magnesium  oxide  (MgO) 

31 

.42 

.00 

.00 

Sulphur  trioxide  (SO3) 

05 

.05 

2.84 

1.50 

Total 

100.11 

99.96 

101.08 

100.86 

Some  beds  of  the  Grand  Gulf  formation  are  composed  of  clear 
quartz  grains  cemented  together  with  a silicious  cement  so  that  they 
present  the  appearance  and  hardness  of  quartzites.  White  chalk-like 
clays  occur  in  some  localities. 


Plate  XXIII. 


B.  SOFT-MUD  BRICK  HACKED  UNDERED  COVER  SHED. 


GEOLOGY  OF  MISSISSIPPI  CLAYS. 


165 


The  table  given  below  contains  the  analyses  of  some  of  the  Grand 


Gulf  clays: 


TABLE  43. 


ANALYSES  OF  GRAND  GULF  CLAYS. 


No.  1 

No.  2 

No.  3 

No.  4 

Moisture  (H2O) 

60 

2.36 

3.65 

1.09 

Volatile  matter  (CO2  etc.) 

5.10 

4.01 

1.16 

2.98 

Silicon  dioxide  (SiC>2) 

72.32 

74.92 

68.28 

82.42 

Iron  oxide  (Fe2C>3) 

3.00 

2.96 

10.00 

2.40 

Aluminum  oxide  (AI2O3) 

15.81 

13.25 

1.76 

9.65 

Calcium  oxide  (CaO) 

47 

.20 

.87 

.70 

Magnesium  oxide  (MgO) 

.38 

.76 

.46 

Sulphur  trioxide  (SO3) 

2.75 

2.12 

4.26 

.12 

Total 

100.05 

100.20 

90.14 

99.62 

Nos.  1,  2 and  4 are  from  Jefferson  County  and  No.  3 is  from  Warren 
County. 

QUATERNARY. 

Lafayette. — The  rocks  of  the  Lafayette  consist  of  sands,  gravels, 
conglomerates,  ironstones,  loams  and  plastic  clays.  It  is  one  of  the 
most  widely  distributed  formations  in  the  State  occupying  practically 
all  of  the  surface  of  the  higher  lands.  Bright  coloring  is  characteristic 
of  nearly  every  outcrop.  Orange,  purple,  pink,  yellow,  buff  and  white 
colored  sands  and  clays  occur  in  a great  diversity  of  stratigraphic 
relationships.  Blotched  and  mottled  surfaces  abruptly  changing  from 
one  color  to  another  are  common.  The  prevailing  coloration  is  largely 
due  to  the  presence  of  ferric  iron. 

The  thickness  of  the  formation  rarely  exceeds  50  feet.  The  strati- 
graphic appearance  of  many  of  the  sands  is  so  suggestive  of  dune 
deposition  that  the  conclusion  that  they  are  of  eolian  origin  would 
seem  irresistible  but  for  the  presence  of  “pebble”  clay.  The  shape, 
mass,  and  distribution  of  this  is  not  in  harmony  with  such  a view. 

Three  modes  of  origin  have  been  suggested  for  the  Lafayette. 
First,  the  glacio -fluvial  hypothesis  suggested  by  Hilgard  in  a Report 
on  the  Agriculture  and  Geology  of  Mississippi,  published  in  1860. 
Second,  the  marine  deposition  hypothesis,  published  by  McGee  in 
Twelfth  Annual  Report  of  the  United  States  Geological  Survey. 
Third,  the  Aggradation  hypothesis,  suggested  by  Chamberlin  and 
Salisbury  in  Earth  History,  Vol.  Ill,  pp.  305-307.  The  statement 
of  the  last  hypothesis  is  given  in  the  words  of  the  authors:  “As  here 
interpreted,  the  Lafayette  formation  belongs  to  an  important  class, 


166 


CLAYS  OF  MISSISSIPPI. 


long  neglected,  but  now  coming  into  recognition,  whose  distinctive 
features  are  less  critically  familiar  than  those  of  marine,  lacustrine, 
and  typical  fluvatile  formations.  The  preferred  interpretation  is  as 
follows:  After  the  Cretaceous  base-leveling  of  the  region,  the  Appa- 
lachian tract  was  bowed  up  and  a new  stage  of  degradation  inaugurated. 
During  the  long  Eccene  period,  a partial  peneplaining  of  the  less 
resistant  tracts  was  accomplished.  This  was  slightly  interrupted  by 
the  Oligiocene  deformation,  and  the  streams  mildly  rejuvenated  in 
the  more  responsive  tracts.  During  the  Miocene  period,  base-leveling 
was  resumed,  abetted  by  relative  subsidence  along  shore,  as  indicated 
by  the  landward  spread  of  the  Miocene  sea,  and  the  open  low  grade 
valleys  and  abundant  low  cols  of  the  region  west  of  the  Appalachians, 
if  the  interpretation  here  given  be  correct.  At  the  opening  of  the 
Pliocene,  therefore,  the  Appalachian  tract  is  supposed  to  have  been 
affected  by  broad,  flat,  intermontane  valleys,  mantled  by  a deep  layer 
of  residual  decomposition  products.  The  'Piedmcnt  tract  skirting  the 
Appalachians  is  supposed  to  have  been  flanked  on  the  seaward  side 
by  a peneplain  near  sea  level,  and  on  the  other  side  by  broad,  open 
valleys  of  low  gradient.  It  is  assumed  that  the  upward  bowing  was 
felt  first  in  a relatively  narrow  belt  along  the  predetermined  axis, 
that  the  rise  was  gradual,  and  that  the  rising  arch  increased  its  breadth 
as  it  rose.  The  first  bowing  along  the  axis  rejuvenated  the  head 
waters  of  the  streams  which  reached  it,  and  the  surface,  deeply 
mantled  with  residuum  accumulated  during  the  peneplaining  stage, 
readily  furnished  load  to  the  streams  in  flood  stages.  When  the 
streams  reached  that  portion  of  the  peneplain  not  yet  affected  by  the 
bowing,  they  found  themselves  loaded  beyond  their  competency,  and 
gave  up  part  of  their  load.  Thus  arose  a zone  of  deposition  along  the 
bowed  tract,  with  continued  rise,  the  mountain  ward  border  of  the 
depositional  zone  is  supposed  to  have  been  shifted  seaward,  and  the 
previous  border  elevated  and  subjected  to  erosion,  while  the  material 
removed  was  re-deposited  in  a new  zone  farther  from  the  axis  of 
rise. 

“Thus  the  process  is  presumed  to  have  continued  till  the  border 
of  the  lifted  tract  passed  beyond  the  present  seacoast,  after  which 
the  whole  mantle  was  subjected  to  erosion,  which  has  reached  a notable 
degree  of  advancement  before  the  first  known  glacio -fluvial  deposits 
were  laid  down.” 


Plate  XXIV. 


SODDING  LOESS  SLOPES  WITH  BERMUDA  GRASS  AS  A PROTECTION  AGAINST  EROSION,  NATIONAL  PARK,  VICKSBURG. 


GEOLOGY  OF  MISSISSIPPI  CLAYS. 


167 


Natchez. — The  Natchez  formation  has  its  typical  development  at 
Natchez,  where  the  thickness  assigned  is  200  feet.  It  rests  erosively 
unconformable  upon  the  Lafayette.  The  formation  is  composed  of 
sands  and  gravels  containing  calcareous  clays.  According  to  Cham- 
berlin, its  age  is  either  sub-Aftonian  or  Aftonian.  (See  Earth  History, 
Vol.  Ill,  pp.  386-8.) 

Loess  ( Bluff  Formation). — A fine- silty  material  of  brownish  color 
containing  concretions  and  tubules  of  lime  carbonate  and  shells  of 
species  of  gastropods  is  called  the  Loess.  In  thickness,  it  varies  from 
a few  feet  to  a hundred  or  more. 

The  Loess  is  thought  to  be  a deposit  formed  largely  by  winds, 
which  transported  silt  and  rock  flour  from  the  flood  plains  of  rivers 
and  from  over-washed  plains  during  glacial  or  inter-glacial  epochs. 

In  Mississippi  the  Loess  occupies  a tract  along  the  eastern  border 
of  the  Mississippi  Valley.  The  tract  is  narrow  and  the  thickest  part 
of  the  deposit  is  upon  the  immediate  banks  of  the  valley  and  thins 
rapidly  toward  the  east.  In  the  majority  of  places  the  upper  surface 
is  occupied  by  a bed  of  residual  clay,  having  a thickness  of  6 to  10 
feet,  and  much  used  for  brick  clay. 

Columbia. — The  brown  and  yellow  loams  which  occupy  the  surface 
of  practically  all  the  hill  country  of  the  State  have  been  assigned  to 
the  Columbia.  In  point  of  time  these  loams  represent  in  some  instances 
doubtless  all  of  the  time  which  has  elapsed  since  the  Lafayette  depo- 
sition. In  other  instances  only  that  time  which  has  elapsed  since  the 
deposition  of  the  Loess. 

The  time  which  has  elapsed  since  the  deposition  of  the  Lafayette 
has  permitted  the  accumulation  of  various  surficial  deposits  of  clay, 
sand  and  loam.  These  have  resulted  in  a large  measure  from  the 
disintegration  and  decomposition  of  older  formations.  That  the 
formation  is  largely  residual  is  not  to  be  denied.  That  it  is  composed 
partly  of  transported  material  is  within  the  bounds  of  reasonable 
probability.  That  such  transported  material  is  largely  of  Eolian 
origin  is  also  very  probable. 

The  brown  loam  and  clay  which  rest  upon  the  Loess  is  without 
doubt  a residual  product  of  the  latter’s  decomposition.  It  is  probable 
that  the  loams  are  for  the  most  part  only  modified  forms  of  the  Loess. 
The  Loess  thins  out  and  loses  its  identity  a short  distance  from  the 


168 


CLAYS  OF  MISSISSIPPI. 


Mississippi  bluffs.  The  loams,  however,  cover  the  whole  State  except 
where  they  have  been  removed  by  erosion. 

Recent  Deposits. — The  recent  deposits  consist  of  undifferentiated 
loams  of  the  hill  country,  the  alluvial  deposits  of  the  flood  plains, 
and  recent  deposits  along  the  coast,  some  of  which  are  marine,  others 
lacustrine  and  others  estuarine. 

The  largest  area  of  recent  deposits  is  that  of  the  Yazoo  basin. 
This  basin  is  a flood  plain  area  between  the  Yazoo  River  and  the 
Mississippi  River.  The  rocks,  sands,  clays  and  silts  have  been 
deposited  by  the  streams. 

The  flood  plain  material  is  of  two  kinds.  First,  the  sandy  loam 
which  is  found  along  the  courses  of  the  streams.  Following  the  law 
of  deposition,  when  a stream  carrying  sediment  overflows  its  banks 
the  water  begins  to  lose  its  velocity  and  to  deposit  the  coarser,  heavier 
particles  of  its  suspended  matter  near  the  streams.  Second,  the  finer 
clayey  materials  which  are  found  on  the  inter-stream  areas.  According 
to  the  same  law  of  deposition,  the  finer  particles  are  carried  .longer 
in  suspension  and  are  dropped  farther  from  the  main  channel.  Fre- 
quently coarse  sediments  are  carried  into  the  inter-stream  areas  by 
temporary  currents  set  up  during  overflows.  Therefore,  layers  of 
sandy  loam  are  often  interbedded  with  layers  of  plastic  clay. 


CHAPTER  IX. 


THE  CLAYS  AND  CLAY  INDUSTRIES  OF  NORTHERN 
MISSISSIPPI  BY  COUNTIES. 


The  following  chapter  contains  a statement  of  our  present  knowl- 
edge of  the  clays  and  clay  industries  of  the  northern  half  of  the  State. 
The  report  is  not  complete  and  is  only  preliminary.  The  clay  in- 
dustries, like  all  other  industries  in  the  State,  are  developing  so  rapidly 
that  the  collector  of  statistics  scarcely  turns  his  back  upon  a field 
before  new  plants  have  sprung  into  existence.  The  following  is  a list 
of  the  counties  wholly  or  partly  included  in  the  report: 


Alcorn 

Holmes 

Monroe 

Tate 

Attala 

Kemper 

Newton 

Tippah 

Carroll 

Lafayette 

Noxubee 

Tunica 

Clay 

Lauderdale 

Oktibbeha 

Union 

Chickasaw 

Lee 

Panola 

Warren 

Choctaw 

Leflore 

Pontotoc 

Washington 

Coahoma 

Lowndes 

Prentiss 

Webster 

De  Soto 

Madison 

Rankin 

Winston 

Grenada 

Marshall 

Scott 

Yalobusha 

Hinds 

Montgomery 

Sunflower 

Yazoo 

ALCORN  COUNTY. 

GEOLOGY. 

The  bed-rock  of  this  county  is  formed  of  Cretaceous  strata.  The 
extreme  southeastern  corner  of  the  county  is  underlain  by  the  Tusca- 
loosa sands  and  clays.  The  eastern  part  of  the  county  is  underlain 
by  the  sands  of  the  Eutaw  (Tombigbee)  group.  The  central  portion 
of  the  county  has  for  its  subformation  the  Selma  chalk,  and  the 
western  portion  is  occupied  by  the  Ripley.  The  principal  mantle  rock 
formations  are  the  Lafayette  sands  and  clays  and  the  Columbia  loams. 
There  are  also  some  residual  deposits  formed  directly  from  the  bed- 


170 


CLAYS  OF  MISSISSIPPI. 


rock  formations.  The  Lafayette  formation  is  represented  by  isolated 
outcrops.  • The  Columbia  loam  has  a wider  distribution.  In  the  Selma 
chalk  area  the  soil  often  rests  directly  upon  the  chalk. 

CLAY  INDUSTRY. 

Corinth. — The  residual  clay  from  the  Selma  is  utilized  in  the 
county  in  the  manufacture  of  brick.  Lafayette  sandy  clay  and  the 
Columbia  loams  are  used  with  the  residual  Selma,  since  the  latter  is 
generally  too  plastic.  At  Corinth,  the  residual  clay  of  the  Selma 
chalk  and  the  Lafayette  clay  are  used  in  the  manufacture  of  brick 
by  the  Corinth  Brick  Manufacturing  Co.  In  the  pit  the  following 
stratigraphic al  conditions  arc  revealed: 

Section  of  the  Pit  of  the  Corinth  Brick  Mfg.  Co .,  Corinth. 


Feet 

4.  Yellowish  loam  (Columbia) 3 

3.  Red  sandy  clay  (Lafayette) 4 

2.  Plastic  clay  (residual  Selma) 2-3 

1.  White  chalk  (Selma) 


In  the  manufacture  of  brick  a mixture  of  Nos.  2,  3 and  4 is  used. 
The  clay  is  prepared  in  a granulator  and  tempered  in  a pug  mill.  It 
is  molded  in  a stiff -mud,  end-cut  machine.  The  brick  are  burned  in 
rectangular,  up-draft  kilns  of  the  clamp  type. 

A sample  of  clay  taken  from  layer  No.  2,  upon  analysis,  gave  the 
following  results: 

TABLE  44. 

ANALYSIS  OF  RESIDUAL  SELMA  CLAY,  CORINTH. 

No.  104 


Moisture  (H20) 3.85 

Volatile  matter  (C02) 4.45 

Silicon  dioxide  (Si02) 76.77 

Iron  oxide  (Fe203) 6.25 

Aluminum  oxide  (AI2O3) 8.56 

Calcium  oxide  (CaO) .31 

Magnesium  oxide  (MgO) .04 

Sulphur  trioxide  (SO3) .00 


Total 100.23 

RATIONAL  ANALYSIS.  , 

Clay  substance 21.65 

Free  silica 66.72 

Impurities 6.60 


A sample  of  the  Selma  chalk  collected  from  this  locality  by  A.  F. 
Crider  has  the  following  chemical  composition: 


Plate  XXV. 


OUTCROP  OF  BUHRSTONE  SHALE-CLAY,  VAIDEN. 


CLAYS  OF  NORTHERN  MISSISSIPPI. 


171 


TABLE  45. 

ANALYSIS  OF  SELMA  LIMESTONE,  CORINTH. 

4.47 
23.70 
25.40 
6.88 
8.62 
26.37 
.58 
.64 


Moisture  (HjO) 

Volatile  matter  (CO2  etc.) 

Silicon  dioxide  (SiOj) 

Aluminum  oxide  (AI2O3) . . 

Iron  oxide  (Fe20s) 

Calcium  oxide  (CaO) 

Magnesium  oxide  (MgO) . . 
Sulphur  trioxide  (SO3) . . . . 


Total 


96.66 


Clay  from  layer  No.  2 of  the  above  section  contains  17.40  per  cent 
of  clay  and  some  silica.  It  cannot  be  used  alone  in  the  manufacture 
of  brick.  The  chief  objections  to  its  use  are  : (a)  the  large  amount  of 
soluble  salts  which  it  contains;  ( b ) an  excess  of  calcium  carbonate; 
(c)  high  plasticity.  The  soluble  salts  are  liable  to  produce  kiln-white 
or  wall-white,  and  calcium  carbonate  is  liable  to  cause  cracking  . f 
the  ware,  and  the  high  plasticity  may  prevent  successful  drying  ex<  .q  t 
by  extremely  slow  methods. 

A.  sample  of  clay  from  layer  No.  3 has  the  following  physical 
properties:  It  requires  19  per  cent  of  water  to  render  it  plastic.  The 
tensile  strength  of  its  raw  brickettes  is  87  pounds  per  square  inch; 
when  burned  it  has  a tensile  strength  of  150  pounds  per  square  inch. 
The  color  of  the  burned  brickettes  is  a deep  red.  The  total  shrinkage 
is  only  2 per  cent.  The  clay  slakes  very  rapidly.  This  clay  lacks 
sufficient  plasticity  for  the  stiff-mud  process  of  molding.  In  con- 
nection with  No.  4 it  could  be  utilized  in  the  manufacture  of  soft-mud 
brick. 

No.  4 is  a loam  which  is  lacking  in  plasticity.  It  doc  ; not  possess 
high  enough  bonding  power  to  make  good  brick.  A mixture  of  these 
three  layers  in  the  proper  proportion  is  essential  to  a good  stiff-mud 
product.  To  obtain  the  best  results  the  clays  should  be  crushed  and 
thoroughly  mixed  before  going  to  the  molding  machine.  In  case  a 
large  amount  of  clay  from  No.  2 is  used,  the  brick  ought  to  be  carefully 
guarded  from  air  currents  for  the  first  few  hours  after  being  taken 
from  the  machine. 

Rienzi. — In  1906,  Mr.  J.  D.  Furtick  of  Ricnzi  was  engaged  in  the 
manufacture  of  brick  for  local  use.  The  brick  were  molded  by  the 


172 


CLAYS  OF  MISSISSIPPI. 


soft-mud.  process  and  burned  in  rectangular,  up-draft  scove  kilns. 


; I'The  pit  from  which  the  clay  was  taken  has  the  following  strati- 


graphy: 


Section  of  Clay  Pit , Rienzi. 


4.  Soil 

3.  White  “hard  pan”  fine  sand 
2.  Yellowish  clay  (Columbia?). 
1.  Water  bearing  sand 


Feet 

1 

1 

10 


i 


Layer  No.  2 is  light  gray  in  the  upper  portion  and  bluish  in  color 
in  the  lower  portion.  The  grayish  clay  has  a total  shrinkage  of  5 per 
cent.  Its  tensile  strength  in  the  raw  state  is  182  pounds.  Hard- 
burned  brickettes  have  a strength  of  322  pounds.  It  requires  27  per 
cent  of  water  to  render  it  plastic.  In  passing  from  the  stiff -mud  to 
the  burnt  state  it  loses  33  per  cent  of  its  weight.  The  burned  brick- 
ettes absorb  14.92  per  cent  of  water.  The  white  clay  absorbs  26.66 
per  cent  of  water.  A sample  of  No.  3 required  16  per  cent  of  water 
to  render  it  plastic.  It  has  a total  shrinkage  of  2 per  cent.  In  the 
raw  state  its  tensile * strength  is  only  45  pounds  per  square  inch,  and 
when  burned  only  30  pounds  per  square  inch.  It  is  composed  of  very 
fine  silica,  and  lacks  bonding  power. 


ATTALA  COUNTY. 

GEOLOGY. 

Attala  County  lies  partly  within  the  Wilcox,  but  almost  wholly 
within  the  Claiborne  area.  The  surface  formations  are  of  Lafayette 
and  Columbia  age. 

CLAY  INDUSTRY. 

Kosciusko. — The  clay  from  the  Columbia  is  used  at  Kosciusko  in 
the  manufacture  of  brick,  in  a plant  operated  by  Storer  and  Miller. 
The  plant  was  first  established  by  A.  M.  Storer  in  1902,  and  in  1906 
the  Storer  and  Miller  Company  was  formed.  The  clay  is  tempered  in 
a pug  mill  and  molded  in  an  end-cut  stiff-mud  machine.  The  kilns 
are  up-draft  clamp  kilns  of  rectangular  shape.  The  brick  are  dried 
on  pallets  in  open  covered  racks. 

The  second  bottom  clays  of  the  surface  formations  are,  generally 
speaking,  the  best  clays  for  the  manufacture  of  stiff-mud  brick.  The 
Lafayette  and  Columbia  loams  of  the  higher  lands  may  be  used  in 
the  manufacture  of  soft-mud  brick.  The  aluminous  clays  of  the 


Plate  XXVI. 


B.  EROSION  IN  THE  LAFAYETTE,  VAIDEN. 


CLAYS  OF  NORTHERN  MISSISSIPPI. 


173 


Wilcox  may  be  utilized  in  the  manufacture  of  a light  colored,  dry- 
pressed  brick.  The  white  color  can  be  varied  by  sprinkling  the  sur- 
face of  the  brick  with  iron  or  manganese  to  produce  specks  or  spots 
in  burning.  These  spotted  brick  make  a very  attractive  ware. 


CARROLL  COUNTY. 

GEOLOGY. 

The  strata  of  the  Tallahatta  buhrstone  constitute  the  bed-rock 
of  Carroll  County.  The  rocks  consist  of  clays,  sands  and  quartzites. 
The  clays  are  exposed  in  cuts  and  along  the  banks  of  the  streams; 
the  quartzites  form  the  cap-rock  for  some  of  the  inter-stream  areas. 

The  mantle  rock  formations  of  the  county  are  Lafayette,  Loess, 
Columbia  loam,  and  the  alluvium  of  the  Yazoo  basin.  In  a railroad 
cut  on  the  Illinois  Central,  south  of  the  station  at  Vaiden,  there  are 
exposed  about  30  feet  of  laminated  clay  belonging  to  the  Claiborne. 
This  clay  is  of  a brownish-gray  color,  varying  to  purple  and  weather- 
ing to  red  or  purple.  The  clay  is  interbedded  with  layers  of  very 
sandy  white  clay.  It  also  contains  thin  wavy  partings  of  limonite. 
In  a small  depression  on  the  west  side  of  the  cut,  a bad-land  type  of 
topography  has  been  developed,  and  the  following  stratigraphic 
features  are  revealed: 

Section  near  Vaiden. 

» Feet 

5.  Soil 1 

4.  Brown  loam 8 

3.  Reddish  clay 10 

2.  Red  and  white  mottled  clay 10 

1.  Grayish  clay 5 

The  reddish  clay  of  No.  3 is  probably  Lafayette,  though  it  has  no 
gravel  and  is  very  similar  to  the  residual  clay  of  No.  1.  The  line 
of  separation  of  No.  3 and  No.  4 is  more  clearly  marked  by  change 
in  texture  than  by  change  in  color.  Wherever  No.  4 has  been  com- 
pletely removed  by  erosion,  the  exposed  surface  of  No.  3 cracks 
into  blocks  of  circular  shapes.  This  is  due  to  the  high  plasticity  and 
excessive  shrinkage  of  the  clay.  In  some  places  No.  3 contains  small 
flat  ironstone  concretions. 

The  clay  from  No.  1 requires  27  per  cent  of  water  for  plasticity. 
It  has  a total  shrinkage  of  15  per  cent.  The  raw  clay  brickettes 


174 


CLAYS  OF  MISSISSIPPI. 


have  a tensile  strength  of  187  pounds  per  square  inch.  When  burned, 
the  tensile  strength  is  200  pounds  per  square  inch.  Absorption  is 
14.63  per  cent.  The  chemical  composition  of  a sample  of  No.  1 is 
given  below  as  analysis  No.  83: 

TABLE  46. 

ANALYSIS  OF  RESIDUAL  CLAY.  VAIDEN. 

No.  83 

Moisture  (H*0) 10.06 

Volatile  matter  (COj  etc.) 7.00 

Silicon  dioxide  (SiOj) 59.22 

Iron  oxide  (FejOj) 4.70 

Aluminum  oxide  (AljOj) 10.30 

Calcium  oxide  (CaO) 1.68 

Magnesium  oxide  (MgO) 1.18 

Sulphur  trioxide  (SOj) .23 


Total 94.37 

RATIONAL  ANALYSIS. 

Clay  substance 26.06 

Free  silica 15.76 

Impurities 7.89 

The  red  residual  clay,  No.  2,  of  the  section  given  above,  has  the 
following  composition: 

TABLE  47. 

ANALYSIS  OF  RESIDUAL  CLAY,  VAIDEN. 

No.  84 

Moisture  (H2O) 6.77 

Volatile  matter  (CO2  etc.) 6.75 

Silicon  dioxide  (Si02) 66.06 

Iron  oxide  (Fe20j) 6.25 

Aluminum  oxide  (A^Oj) 9.47 

Calcium  oxide  (CaO) 1.95 

Magnesium  oxide  (MgO) .72 

Sulphur  trioxide  (SO3) .10 


Total.... 97.87 

RATIONAL  ANALYSIS. 

Clay  substance 23.96 

Free  silica 51.58 

Impurities 9.02 

This  clay  has  too  high  a shrinkage  to  be  utilized  without  the  aid 
of  non-plastic  material.  It  would  also  require  thorough  crushing 
before  it  could  be  used,  as  it  slakes  slowly.  The  non-plastic  material 
of  the  Lafayette  or  Columbia  near  at  hand  could  be  used  to  dilute  it. 


Plate  XXVII. 


UP-DRAFT  CLAMP  KILNS,  END  VIEW,  WEST  POINT, 


CLAYS  OF  NORTHERN  MISSISSIPPI. 


175 


CLAY  COUNTY* 

GEOLOGY. 

The  bed-rock  of  Clay  County  belongs  to  the  Cretaceous  and  the 
Eocene  periods.  The  eastern  part  of  the  county  is  underlain  by  the 
Eutaw  (Tombigbee)  formation;  the  central  portion  by  the  Selma 
chalk,  and  the  western  part  by  the  Porter’s  Creek  (Flatwoods). 
The  mantle  rock  formations  are  the  Lafayette  and  the  Columbia. 
The  Lafayette  occurs  only  in  isolated  areas.  The  Columbia  has  a 
much  larger  distribution,  but  there  are  areas  in  which  the  soil  rests 
directly  upon  the  surface  of  the  Selma  without  intervening  mantle 
rock.  Much  of  the  surface  clay  has  been  formed  by  the  decom- 
position of  the  Selma  chalk. 

CLAY  INDUSTRY. 

West  Point. — In  the  pit  belonging  to  the  West  Point  Manufacturing 
Company,  at  West  Point,  the  clay  rests  upon  a stratum  of  the  Selma 
chalk.  On  weathered  surfaces  the  chalk  is  white,  but  un weathered 
surfaces  are  blue.  The  chalk  at  this  point  is  very  fossiliferous,  con- 
taining many  specimens  of  the  genus  Inoceramus. 

The  limestone  immediately  underlying  the  clay  contains  sufficient 
clay  to  render  it  plastic.  When  molded  into  brickettes  it  is  white 
or  blue,  depending  on  whether  the  weathered  or  un  weathered  chalk 
is  taken.  The  burned  clay  has  a white  or  light  yellow  color.  The 
brickettes  have  a tensile  strength  of  152  pounds  per  square  inch  in 
the  un  burned  state.  Its  air  shrinkage  is  about  6 per  cent.  Samples 
of  this  limestone  and  the  overlying  clay  have  the  following  composi- 
tion: 

TABLE  48. 

ANALYSES  OF  SELMA  LIMESTONE  AND  RESIDUAL  CLAY,  WEST 

POINT. 

No.  32  No.  33 

4.25  2.75 

7.77  22.61 

73.70  32.81 

11.14  4.65 

3.81  11.15 

1.04  22.69 

.00  1.53 

.21  1.55 


Total 

No.  32.  Residual  clay. 
No.  33.  Selma  limestone 


99.97  99.74 


Moisture  (H2O) 

Volatile  matter  (CO2  etc.) 

Silicon  dioxide  (Si02) 

Iron  oxide  (Fe20s) 

Aluminum  oxide  (AI2O3) . 

Calcium  oxide  (CaO) 

Magnesium  oxide  (MgO) . . 
Sulphur  trioxide  (SO3) 


176 


CLAYS  OF  MISSISSIPPI. 


The  above  mentioned  limestone  contains  28.20  per  cent  of  clay 
and  a small  per  cent  of  free  silica.  Doubtless  the  low  percentage  of 
calcium  carbonate  is  due  to  the  solvent  action  of  circulating  waters 
which  dissolved  out  and  carried  away  much  of  this  soluble  constituent 
and  produced  a concentration  of  such  insolubles  as  clay  and  silica. 
As  the  distance  from  the  limestone  to  the  top  of  the  clay  deposit 
increases,  there  is  a corresponding  decrease  in  the  amount  of  calcium 
carbonate.  On  the  other  hand,  the  amount  of  silica  increases  to  the 
top  while  the  amount  of  alumina  increases  to  a certain  point,  and  then 
decreases  as  the  amount  of  free  silica  increases. 

The  clay  immediately  overlying  the  limestone  contains  a high  per 
cent  of  calcium  carbonate  in  some  places.  In  burning,  the  calcium 
compound  is  calcined  and  when  the  bricks  absorb  moisture  the  lime 
slakes  and  produces  heat.  The  heat  and  the  swelling  of  the  lime  cause 
the  brick  to  crack  open.  This  would  not  occur  if  the  lime  was  thor- 
oughly mixed  throughout  the  clay  in  small  particles.  The  clay  con- 
tains soluble  salts,  which  produce  efflorescence  on  the  brick  in  drying. 
The  principal  salt  is  calcium  sulphate,  formed  by  the  decomposition 
of  pyrite  in  the  presence  of  calcium  carbonate.  This  salt  is  brought 
to  the  surface  by  the  water  which  comes  from  the  brick  during  drying, 
and  forms  a white  coating  on  the  surface.  The  bottom  clay  is  so 
plastic  that  it  gives  trouble  in  drying  when  used  alone.  The  best 
results  are  to  be  obtained  by  not  taking  the  clay  too  close  to  the 
limestone;  and  by  mixing  the  lower  clay  with  the  clay  from  the 
more  non-plastic  layer.  Other  non-plastic  materials,  such  as  sand  and 
cinders,  may  be  used  to  facilitate  the  drying  of  the  clay;  but  by  the 
use  of  the  top  clay  the  loss  of  bonding  power  is  not  so  greatly  dimin- 
ished. This  clay  was  used  several  years  ago  by  Mr.  John  Mahafa  in 
the  manufacture  of  drain  tile.  It  is  stated  that  the  lack  of  demand 
for  tile  at  that  time  caused  the  enterprise  to  be  abandoned. 

On  comparing  the  analysis  of  No.  32  with  that  of  No.  33  an  increase 
in  silica  from  the  limestone  to  the  clay  of  nearly  double  may  be  noted. 
The  lime  element,  however,  has  decreased  18.94  per  cent. 

Clay  No.  32  has  a total  shrinkage  of  10  per  cent.  It  loses  42  per 
cent  in  weight  in  drying  and  burning.  The  burned  brickettes  are  pale 
yellow  due  to  the  presence  of  lime  which  destroys  the  coloring  effects 
of  the  iron.  The  average  tensile  strength  of  12  unbumed  brickettes 
was  152  pounds  per  square  inch.  The  minimum  strength  was  122 


Plate  XXVIII 


TAKING  BRICK  FROM  OFF-BEARING,  BELT  OF  AN  END-CUT  MACHIN 


CLAYS  OF  NORTHERN  MISSISSIPPI. 


177 


pounds  and  the  maximum  172  pounds.  It  has  an  absorption  of  16.86 
per  cent.  When  mixed  with  10  per  cent  of  cinders  and  burned,  it 
has  an  absorption  of  14.28  per  cent;  when  mixed  with  10  per  cent 
of  coal,  it  has  an  absorption  of  12.72  per  cent. 

The  clay  at  the  top  of  the  pit  has  suffered  a still  greater  loss  in 
soluble  constituents  and  shows  an  increase  in  insoluble  elements. 
The  following  analysis  shows  its  composition: 

TABLE  49. 

ANALYSIS  OF  SURFACE  CLAY,  WEST  POINT. 

No.  34 


Moisture  (H2O) 2.41 

Volatile  matter  (C02  etc.) 7.66 

Silicon  dioxide  (Si02) 73.70 

Iron  oxide  (Fe203) 11.14 

Aluminum  oxide  (A1203) 3.81 

Calcium  oxide  (CaO) 1.04 

Magnesium  oxide  (MgO) .00 

Sulphur  trioxide  (SO3) .21 


Total 99.97 


RATIONAL  ANALYSIS. 


Clay  substance 9.63 

Free  silica 69.22 

Impurities 12.34 


This  clay  probably  contains  a mixture  of  Lafayette  sand  and 
Columbia  loam,  both  of  which  have  been  washed  down  from  a neigh- 
boring elevation.  The  amount  of  impurities  exceeds  the  amount  of 
clay.  The  large  per  cent  of  free  silica  renders  the  clay  non -plastic. 
However,  it  supplies  non -plastic  material  which  may  be  used  for  dilut- 
ing the  more  plastic  clay  below. 

The  Welch-Trotter  Brick  Manufacturing  Company  operates  a 
yard  on  the  line  of  the  Illinois  Central  Railroad  at  West  Point  about 
i mile  south  of  the  station.  The  plant  was  established  in  1905.  The 
clay  used  is  mostly  residual  clay  from  the  Selma  chalk,  though  the 
upper  portion  may  be  in  part  Columbia  loam.  The  pit  has  been 
opened  to  a depth  of  7 to  8 feet.  The  lower  clay  is  very  plastic. 
A sample  of  clay  analyzed  from  near  the  bottom  of  the  pit  gave  the 
following  results: 


178 


CLAYS  OF  MISSISSIPPI. 


TABLE  50. 

ANALYSIS  OF  CLAY  USED  AT  THE  WELCH-TROTTER  BRICK  PLANT, 
WEST  POINT. 


No.  44 


Moisture  (H2O) 3.45 

Volatile  matter  (CO2  etc.) 5.58 

Silicon  dioxide  (Si02) 72.32 

Iron  oxide  (Fe20s) 7.44 

Aluminum  oxide  (AI2O3) 8.74 

Calcium  oxide  (CaO) 1.55 

Magnesium  oxide  (MgO) .47 

Sulphur  trioxide  (SO3) .51 


Total 100.06 


RATIONAL  ANALYSIS. 


Clay  substance 22.11 

Free  silica 62.05 

Impurities 9.97 


The  clay  from  the  lower  layers  of  the  Welch-Trotter  pit  does  not 
dry  readily,  and  is  used  only  when  mixed  with  the  upper  leaner  clay. 
The  shrinkage  of  the  lower  clay  is  very  excessive.  The  absence  of 
non-plastic  material  of  large  grain  permits  a very  slow  transfer  of 
water  from  the  center  of  the  brick.  Thus  the  outside  becomes  dry 
and  shrinks  more  rapidly  than  the  center,  thereby  producing  cracks. 

Two  samples  of  clay  from  the  middle  portion  of  the  bed  show 
the  following  chemical  composition: 


TABLE  51. 


ANALYSES  OF  CLAYS,  WEST  POINT. 

No.  45  No.  47 


Moisture  (H2O) 

Volatile  matter  (CO2) . . . 

Silicon  dioxide  (Si02) 

Iron  oxide  (Fe20s) 

Aluminum  oxide  (A1203) 
Calcium  oxide  (CaO) 
Magnesium  oxide  (MgO) . 
Sulphur  trioxide  (SO3)  . . 


3.95  3.10 

5.12  3.75 

71.45  76.86 

5.00  9.50 

11.68  3.75 

1.45  1.25 

.76  .45 

.34  .34 


Total 


99.75  98.70 


RATIONAL  ANALYSIS. 


Clay  substance 28.55 

Free  silica 57.73 

Impurities 7.55 


Clay  No.  45  requires  17  per  cent  of  water  to  render  it  plastic. 
It  shrinks  about  6§  per  cent.  It  bums  without  cracking  to  a red 


CLAYS  OF  NORTHERN  MISSISSIPPI. 


179 


color.  The  tensile  strength  of  the  raw  brickettes  is  92  pounds  per 
square  inch.  The  burned  brickettes  have  a strength  of  130  pounds 
per  square  inch. 

This  clay  has  about  the  proper  amount  of  clay  substances  and  the 
proper  physical  properties  to  make  a good  clay  for  the  manufacture 
of  a stiff-mud  brick.  The  thickness  of  the  layer  is  not  sufficient  to 
warrant  its  exclusive  use.  Therefore  a mixture  of  top,  bottom  and 
middle  clay  is  used. 

Clay  No.  47  is  noticeable  for  its  high  silica  content  and  the  small 
amount  of  alumina.  It  has  a peculiar  texture  and  is  somewhat  light 
and  spongy.  Its  total  shrinkage  is  5 per  cent.  It  requires  the  addi- 
tion of  19  per  cent  of  water  for  molding.  The  raw  clay  has  a tensile 
strength  of  140  pounds  per  square  inch.  The  burned  brickettes  have 
strength  of  138  pounds  per  square  inch.  A medium  burned  brickette 
absorbs  10.52  per  cent  of  water.  The  tensile  strength  is  high  when 
the  small  amount  of  clay  substance  is  considered.  The  amount  of 
impurities  in  the  clay  is  in  excess  of  the  clay  substance. 

The  clay  from  the  top  of  the  pit  contains  more  silica  and  less 
alumina  than  the  clay  from  the  middle  and  lower  portions  of  the  pit. 
An  analysis  of  a sample  of  the  top  clay  is  given  below: 

TABLE  52. 

ANALYSIS  OF  SURFACE  CLAY,  WEST  POINT. 

No.  40 


Moisture  (H20) 3.50 

Volatile  matter  (C02) 2.52 

Silicon  dioxide  (Si02) 75.95 

Iron  oxide  (Fe202) 5.08 

Aluminum  oxide  (Al203) 9.62 

Calcium  oxide  (CaO) 1.25 

Magnesium  oxide  (MgO) .74 

Sulphur  trioxide  (SO3) .34 


Total : 99.00 

RATIONAL  ANALYSIS. 

Clay  substance 24.33 

Free  silica 64.74 

Impurities 7.41 


The  above  mentioned  clay  may  be  molded  by  the  addition  of 
18  per  cent  of  water.  The  burned  brickettes  are  red  in  color  and  free 
from  cracks  and  checks.  The  raw  clay  has  a tensile  strength  of  283 


180 


CLAYS  OF  MISSISSIPPI. 


pounds.  The  total  shrinkage  is  about  6 per  cent.  The  increase  in 
tensile  strength  over  the  clay  from  the  middle  portion  of  the  pit  is 
noticeable.  The  increase  is  doubtless  due  to  the  greater  amount  of 
clay  substance. 


CHICKASAW  COUNTY. 

GEOLOGY. 

The  eastern  portion  of  Chickasaw  County  is  underlain  by  the  Ripley 
and  Selma  divisions  of  the  Cretaceous.  The  western  portion  is  under- 
lain by  the  Porter’s  Creek  and  the  W ilcox.  The  Lafayette,  the  residual 
Selma  and  the  Columbia  overlie  the  bed-rock  formations.  The  clays 
used  in  the  manufacture  of  brick  are  from  these  surface  formations. 


CLAY  INDUSTRY. 

Okolona. — At  Okolona  deposits  of  yellow  clay,  for  the  most  part 
residual  Selma,  rest  upon  that  formation.  This  clay  is  used  by  Haw- 
kins*and  Hodges  in  the  manufacture  of  brick.  This  brick  plant  was 
established  in  Okolona  in  1895.  The  brick  are  molded  in  a stiff-mud 
machine  of  the  auger-type.  They  are  cut  with  an  end-cut  machine. 
The  kilns  in  use  are  rectangular  up-draft  kilns  of  the  clamp  type. 
The  clay  in  the  pit  is  of  two  kinds:  the  upper  is  sandy,  the  lower 
is  plastic  and  contains  blue  and  red  streaks.  The  limestone  under- 
lying the  clay  at  this  point  has  the  following  composition: 


TABLE  53. 


ANALYSIS  OF  SELMA  LIMESTONE,  OKOLONA. 


Moisture  (H2O) 

Volatile  matter  (CO2  etc.)  . . . 

Silicon  dioxide  (Si02> 

Iron  oxide  (Fe20s) 

Aluminum  oxide  (AI2O3) 

Calcium  oxide  (CaO) 

Magnesium  oxide  (MgO) .... 
Sulphur  trioxide  (SO3) 

Total 


No.  19 
1.10 
34.20 
8.70 
6.00 
.00 
45.62 
1.72 
1.11 


98.45 


Another  sample  of  the  limestone  has  the  chemical  properties 
indicated  below: 


CLAYS  OF  NORTHERN  MISSISSIPPI. 


181 


TABLE  54. 

ANALYSIS  OF  SELMA  CHALK,  OKOLONA. 


No.  12a 


Moisture  (H20) 6.35 

Volatile  matter  (C02  etc.) 31.11 

Silicon  dioxide  (Si02) 8.80 

Iron  oxide  (Fe2Os) ,. 4.08 

Aluminum  oxide  (Al2Os) 2.86 

Calcium  oxide  (CaO) 45.51 

Magnesium  oxide  (MgO) 0.36 

Sulphur  trioxide  (SO3) 0.38 


Total 99.45 


The  bottom  clay  is  very  plastic  and  is  derived  from  the  Selma  by 
the  solvent  action  of  surface  waters.  The  decomposition  of  pyrite 
contained  in  the  chalk  forms  iron  concretions  called  “buckshot,”  in 
the  lower  part  of  the  clay  bed.  They  are  not  uniformly  distributed 
but  are  found  in  streaks  in  the  lower  layers  and  should  be  avoided, 
as  they  interfere  with  cutting  and  cause  flaws  in  the  brick  unless 
crushed. 


Houston. — The  Pope  Brick  Manufacturing  Company  established 
a plant  at  Houston  in  1903.  The  clay  used  is  red  clay,  belonging 
probably  to  the  Lafayette.  The  brick  are  molded  in  a stiff -mud 
machine  of  the  plunger  type.  The  brick  are  dried  by  heating  under 
covered  sheds.  The  burning  is  done  in  rectangular  up-draft  kilns. 
The  clay  is  plastic,  especially  in  the  bottom  layers,  and  care  must 
be  exercised  in  order  not  to  dry  too  rapidly.  The  use  of  the  non -plastic 
surface  loam  serves  to  increase  the  speed  of  drying. 

New  Houlka. — The  New  Houlka  Brick  Manufacturing  Company’s 
plant  was  established  at  New  Houlka  in  1904.  The  clay  is  prepared 
in  a disintegrator  and  tempered  in  a pug  mill.  It  is  molded  in  an 
auger-type  stiff-mud  machine.  The  brick  are  cut  with  an  end-cut 
machine  and  burned  in  rectangular  up-draft  kilns.  The  stratigraphy 
of  the  clay  pit  is  as  follows: 


Section  of  Clay  Pit , New  Houlka. 

Feet 


4.  Yellow!  loam 2-3 

3.  Gray  clay,  very  plastic 4-5 

2.  Grayish  clay  with  iron  concretions  (buckshot) 1 

1 . Limestone  with  shells  (Clayton) 


182 


CLAYS  OF  MISSISSIPPI. 


Clays  Nos.  2 and  3 have  very  similar  properties  to  the  Porter’s 
Creek  or  Flatwoods  clays.  Since  New  Houlka  lies  within  the  edge 
of  that  area,  these  clays  are  probably  residual  clays  from  that  group. 
Layer  No.  4 may  consist  partly  of  this  residual  clay  and  partly  of 
foreign  material. 

A sample  of  clay  from  No.  3 has  the  composition  recorded  below: 


TABLE  55. 


ANALYSIS  OF  BRICK  CLAY.  NEW  HOULKA. 

No.  96  No.  95 


Moisture  (H»0) 

Volatile  matter  (COj  etc.) 

Silicon  dioxide  (SiOj) 

Iron  oxide  (FejOs) 

Aluminum  oxide  (AljOj). 

Calcium  oxide  (CaO) 

Magnesium  oxide  (MgO) . . 
Sulphur  trioxide  (SOj) 


3.86  4.00 

3.60  6.30 

75.85  71.75 

5.45  -5.95 

4.95  5.85 

1.87  2.05 

.49  .14 

.04  .48 


Total 


96.11  96.52 


RATIONAL  ANALYSIS. 


Clay  substance 12.52  14.79 

Free  silica 68.28  62.81 

Impurities 7.86  8.62 

No.  95  from  No.  4 
No.  96  from  No.  3 

The  absorption  of  clay  No.  96  is  12.96  per  cent;  tensile  strength, 
raw,  75  pounds.  The  absorption  of  a mixture  of  Nos.  95  and  96  is 
16  per  cent;  tensile  strength,  raw,  60  pounds;  burned,  75  pounds; 
shrinkage,  5 per  cent. 


CHOCTAW  COUNTY. 

GEOLOGY. 

Choctaw  County  lies  within  the  area  of  the  Wilcox  Eocene,  with  a 
small  outcrop  of  Claiborne  in  the  southwestern  corner.  The  mantle 
rock  belongs  to  the  Lafayette  and  the  Columbia. 

The  surface  clays  have  been  used  at  Ackerman  in  the  manufacture 
of  brick.  The  plant  is  not  now  in  operation.  The  brick  were  made 
by  the  soft-mud  process  and  burned  in  scove  kilns.  There  seems  to 
be  a suitable  body  of  clay  for  the  manufacture  of  brick  just  west  of 
the  Mobile,  Jackson  and  Kansas  City  station.  The  clay  is  bluish  in 
color  and  has  a thickness  of  about  15  feet. 

An  exposure  of  the  Wilcox  and  later  formations  may  be  seen  in  a 


CLAYS  OF  NORTHERN  MISSISSIPPI. 


183 


cut  on  the  Illinois  Central  Railroad  one-half  mile  east  of  Ackerman. 
At  the  bottom  of  the  cut  there  are  10  feet  of  pink  colored  sand.  Over- 
lying  the  pink  sand  there  are  10  feet  of  orange  sand  with  little  partings 
of  clay.  Near  the  top  there  is  a thin  layer  of  ironstone  which  has 
been  broken  up,  the  pieces  being  turned  at  various  angles.  On  the 
^slopes  there  is  a bed  of  yellow  loam  which  decreases  in  thickness 
toward  the  top  until  at  the  apex  there  is  not  more  than  1 foot  of  it. 
The  best  clays  for  brick  making  in  this  country  are  to  be  found  in  the 
second  bottom  deposits.  Some  of  the  upland  loams  may  be  used  in 
the  soft -mud  process. 

COAHOMA  COUNTY. 

GEOLOGY. 

The  surface  of  Coahoma  County  is  occupied  by  the  recent  alluvium 
deposited  by  the  Mississippi  River  upon  its  flood  plain.  The  rocks  of 
the  Wilcox  formation  underlie  this  alluvial  deposit  at  a depth  of 
from  25  to  50  feet. 

At  a number  of  places  in  Coahoma  County  the  dark  “buckshot” 
clay  of  the  alluvium  has  been  burned  successfully  for  road  ballast. 
There  are  several  short  sections  of  roads  upon  which  the  ballast  has 
been  used  with  satisfactory  results.  The  burned  clay  ballast  is  said 
to  be  much  more  economical  than  gravel.  The  cost  per  mile  for  the 
burned  clay  ballast  is  about  $1,500. 

CLAY  INDUSTRY. 

Clarksdale.— An  experiment  in  road  building  carried  on  at  Clarks- 
dale  by  the  U.  S.  Bureau  of  Public  Roads  gave  very  satisfactory 
results.  The  experiment  was  made  upon  a piece  of  road  having  a 
length  of  300  feet.  The  road  was  first  plowed  as  deep  as  it  was  pos- 
sible for  a four-horse  team  to  pull  the  plow.  It  was  then  cross-fur- 
rowed and  pieces  of  wood  were  placed  across  the  furrows  resting 
upon  the  crests  of  the  intervening  ridges.  The  wood  was  then  cov- 
ered with  clay  and  more  .wood  placed  upon  the  surface  of  the  clay. 
This  wood  was  covered  with  more  clay.  Fires  were  then  kindled  in 
the  furrows  beneath  the  wood.  The  burning  of  the  wood  reduced  the 
overlying  clay  to  a “clinker.”  After  the  clay  had  been  burned  it 
was  rolled  down  and  compacted  forming  a close,  hard,  non-plastic 
surface.  The  several  items  of  cost  were  as  follows: 


184  CLAYS  OF  MISSISSIPPI. 

TABLE  56. 

COST  OF  BUILDING  300  FEET  OF  ROAD  WITH  BURNED  CLAY  BAL- 
LAST. CLARKSDALE. 


30£  cords  of  wood  at  $1.30  per  cord $39.65 

20  loads  of  bark  and  chips  at  $0.30 6.00 

Labor  at  $1.25  per  day  and  teams  at  $3.00  per  day 38.30 


Total  cost  of  300  feet $83.95 

Total  cost  per  mile  at  this  rate,  $1,478.40. 


The  clay  ballast  has  not  the  wearing  qualities  of  the  hard  chert 
gravel,  such  as  the  Tishomingo  gravel,  but  with  proper  care  it  can  be 
made  very  serviceable,  and  in  a land  of  such  paucity  of  good  road 
metal  and  great  abundance  of  timber  this  method  of  road  making 
has  its  advantages.  It  is  to  be  hoped  that  further  experiments  will 
be  tried  in  the  Delta  and  in  other  parts  of  the  State,  By  the  use  of 
its  convict  labor  the  State  could  conduct  experiments  of  this  kind 
upon  the  roads  on  and  near  Sunflower  farm,  using  the  timber  cut 
from  the  land  in  the  process  of  clearing 

The  alluvial  clays  of  Coahoma  County  are  used  at  Clarksdale 
for  the  manufacture  of  both  brick  and  drain  tile.  The  Clarksdale 
Brick  and  Tile  Mfg.  Company  has  opened  a pit  in  which  the  following 
stratigraphical  conditions  exist: 

Section  of  Clay  Pit , Clarksdale. 

Feet 


5.  Soil  and  sandy  loam 7 

4.  Dark  colored  clay  (buckshot) 8 

3.  Sandy  loam 12 

2.  Sands 3 

1.  Gravel  bowlders  in  bottom 


Samples  of  clay  taken  from  beds  Nos.  5 and  4 gave  the  results 
shown  in  analyses  Nos.  62  and  61  respectively. 


TABLE  57. 


ANALYSES  OF  CLAYS  USED  BY  THE  CLARKSDALE  BRICK  AND  TILE 
CO.,  CLARKSDALE. 


Moisture  (H2O) 

Volatile  matter  (CO*  etc.) 

Silicon  dioxide  (Si02) 

Iron  oxide  (Fe20s) 

Aluminum  oxide  (AI2O3) . 

Calcium  oxide  (CaO) 

Magnesium  oxide  (MgO) . . 
Sulphur  trioxide  (SO3) 


No.  62 

No.  61 

2.81 

6.78 

4.23 

7.97 

74.45 

58.52 

3.38 

6.87 

11.62 

16.20 

1.69 

1.75 

.94 

.36 

.43 

.51 

Total 


99.55 


98.96 


CLAYS  OF  NORTHERN  MISSISSIPPI. 


185 


RATIONAL  ANALYSES. 


Clay  substance 

Free  silica 

Impurities 


No  . 5 

No.  4 

29.39 

40.98 

60.89 

39.47 

8.44 

9.49 

The  clay  from  No.  5 has  a total  shrinkage  of  6§  per  cent;  tensile 
strength  raw,  115  pounds;  burned,  155  pounds;  requires  19  per  cent 
cf  water.  Clay  from  No.  4 has  total  shrinkage  of  5 per  cent;  requires 
18  per  cent  of  water;  tensile  strength  raw,  132  pounds;  burned,  258 
pounds. 

The  clay  is  prepared  by  the  use  of  a granulator  and  disintegrator 
and  after  being  tempered  n a pug  mill  is  molded  in  an  auger,  stiff - 
mud  machine.  The  clay  from  layer  No.  4 contains  more  clay  than 
sand.  Its  shrinkage  is  excessive  and  it  can  not  be  used  alone  in  the 
manufacture  of  brick  or  tile;  when  mixed  with  the  non-plastic  ma- 
terial from  the  other  layers  of  the  pit  it  produces  a good  grade  of 
ware.  Careful  selection  of  clay  and  mixing  is  necessary  to  obtain 
the  best  results.  Whenever  a large  proportion  of  the  plastic  clay  is 
used  difficulties  of  rapid  drying  of  the  wares  are  greatly  increased. 
The  burned  brickettes  have  an  absorption  of  12.96  per  cent. 

The  Rheinhart  firm  of  Clarksdale  also  operates  a plant  for  the 
manufacture  of  brick  and  drain  tile.  In  the  clay  pit  which  they  have 
opened  in  the  alluvial  deposit  the  following  layers  are  encountered: 

Section  of  Rheinhart  Clay  Pit , Clarksdale. 

Feet 


4.  Soil  and  sandy  loam  (top) 3 

3.  Sandy  clay 8 

2.  Dark  clay  (buckshot) 5 

1.  Sand  in  bottom 


The  analysis  of  clay  from  layer  No.  2 is  here  given: 

TABLE  58. 

ANALYSIS  OF  BUCKSHOT  CLAY  USED  AT  THE  RHEINHART  BRICK 
AND  TILE  FACTORY,  CLARKSDALE. 

No.  63 


Moisture  (H2O) 6.70 

Volatile  matter  (CO*  etc.) 8.31 

Silicon  dioxide  (SiOj) 59.47 

Iron  oxide  (Fe203) 7.25 

Aluminum  oxide  (AI2O3) 14.00 

Calcium  oxide  (CaO) 1.50 

Magnesium  oxide  (MgO) .83 

Sulphur  trioxide  (SO3) .43 


Total 


98.49 


186  CLAYS  OF  MISSISSIPPI. 

RATIONAL  ANALYSIS. 

Clay  substance • 35.42 

Free  silica 7 40.03 

Impurities 10.01 


The  gray  “buckshot”  clay  is  mixed  with  a more  sandy  clay  for 
the  manufacture  of  brick  and  drain  tile.  The  amount  of  clay  sub- 
stance permits  the  addition  of  considerable  non-plastic  material 
without  destroying  the  bonding  power. 

In  the  manufacture  of  the  smaller  size  of  tile  a horizontal  machine 
is  used,  but  for  the  larger  sizes  a vertical  attachment  is  employed. 
The  brick  and  tile  are  burned  in  kilns  of  the  beehive  type. 

DE  SOTO  COUNTY* 

GEOLOGY. 

The  extreme  western  part  of  De  Soto  County  lies  within  the  allu- 
vial plain  of  the  Yazoo  basin.  The  remainder  of  the  country  lies  at 
a higher  level  and  has  a much  more  rugged  topography.  The  hilly 
portion  is  covered  with  surfacial  deposits  of  Lafayette,  Loess  and 
Columbia.  The  sub-formation  of  the  county  is  the  upper  portion  of 
Hilgard’s  Lignitic  (Wilcox). 

CLAY  INDUSTRY. 

Lake  View. — At  Lake  View,  a station  on  the  Yazoo  and  Mississippi 
Valley  Railroad,  one-half  mile  south  of  the  Tennessee  line,  the  flood 
plain  meets  the  bluffs.  At  a point  where  the  railroad  makes  a cut 
through  the  bluffs  the  following  section  is  revealed: 

Section  of  Loess  and  Lafayette  One-Half  Mile  South  of  Lake 

View. 

Feet 


4.  Soil 1 

3.  Brownish  sandy  loam  (Loess) 10 

2.  Gravel  and  sand  (Lafayette) 5 

1.  Gravel  and  conglomerate  (Lafayette) 10 


The  gravels  of  Nos.  1 and  2 are  largely  white,  yellow  and  blue 
flints.  In  some  places  they  are  cemented  together,  forming  masses 
of  pudding  stone,  or  conglomerate  of  considerable  size.  The  cement- 
ing substance  is  limonite.  No.  1 is  Lafayette  and  No.  2 is  probably 
Lafayette,  though  the  latter  may  be  Natchez.  No.  3 is  Loess  and 
its  derivative,  though  no  concretions' or  gastropod  shells  were  found 
in  it. 


CLAYS  OF  NORTHERN  MISSISSIPPI. 


187 


A sample  of  clay  from  No.  2 was  collected  for  analysis  and  gave 
results  as  follows: 

TABLE  59. 

ANALYSIS  OF  CLAY.  LAKE  VIEW. 

No.  50 


Moisture  (H2O) 1.31 

Volatile  matter  (CO2  etc.) 5.28 

Silicon  dioxide  (Si02) 75.33 

Iron  oxide  (Fe20s) 5.60 

Aluminum  oxide  (A12Oj) 7.80 

Calcium  oxide  (CaO) 1.25 

Magnesium  oxide  (MgO) 1.19 

Sulphur  trioxide  (SO*) .60 


Total 98.36 

RATIONAL  ANALYSIS. 

Clay  substance 19.73 

Free  silica 66.16 

Impurities 9.64 


The  physical  character  of  No.  2 is  as  follows:  The  total  shrinkage 
is  3J  per  cent;  water  required  for  plasticity,  17  per  cent;  tensile 
strength  raw,  65  pounds  per  square  inch;  burned,  83  pounds; 
absorption,  13.33  per  cent;  color,  cherry  red.  The  clay  lacks  the  plas- 
ticity essential  to  stiff-mud  brick,  but  it  may  be  used  for  soft-mud 
brick,  or,  by  mixing  with  the  more  plastic  “buckshot”  clays  of  the 
bottom,  it  may  be  used  by  the  stiff -mud  methods. 

About  one  mile  south  of  Lake  View  is  located  the  works  of  the 
Valley  Brick  and  Tile  Company.  The  products  of  their  plant  are 
brick,  hollow  blocks  and  drain  tile.  The  brick  and  blocks  are  molded 
in  a stiff -mud  machine  of  the  horizontal  auger  type.  The  brick  are 
cut  by  an  automatic  side-cut  machine.  Two  types  of  kilns  are  used, 
namely,  an  up-draft  kiln  of  the  rectangular,  clamp  type  and  a down- 
draft  beehive  kiln. 

The  clay  used  is  obtained  from  alluvial  deposits  of  the  Yazoo 
basin.  It  bums  to  a red  color  but  explodes  and  flies  to  pieces  if  the 
heat  be  applied  too  rapidly.  In  air-drying  it  shrinks  15  per  cent,  but 
its  total  shrinkage  after  burning  is  only  10  per  cent,  so  that  the  air 
shrinkage  is  partly  compensated  by  swelling  in  burning.  The  water 
required  to  render  it  plastic  is  22  per  cent.  In  the  raw  state  the  air- 
dried  brickettes  have  a tensile  strength  of  183  pounds.  When  burned 
they  exhibit  a strength  of  193  pounds.  The  chemical  composition  of 
a sample  of  the  clay  is  as  follows: 


188 


CLAYS  OF  MISSISSIPPI. 


TABLE  60. 

ANALYSIS  OF  ALLUVIAL  CLAY.  LAKE  VIEW. 

No.  51 


Moisture  (H20) 5.15 

Volatile  matter  (CO*  etc.) 11.70 

Silicon  dioxide  (SiO*) 58.92 

Iron  oxide  (Fe203) 7.45 

Aluminum  oxide  (A120») 11.75 

Calcium  oxide  (CaO) 1.10 

Magnesium  oxide  (MgO) 1.01 

Sulphur  trioxide  (SO3) .48 


Total 97.56 


RATIONAL  ANALYSIS. 


Clay  substance 29.72 

Free  silica 45.11 

Impurities 10.04 


Hernando. — At  Hernando  the  surface  formations  are  Lafayette 
and  Columbia.  The  latter  seems  to  be  a modified,  or  at  least  a partly 
residual,  form  of  the  Loess.  An  outcrop  in  a ravine  south  of  the 
station  reveals  the  following  stratigraphy: 

Section  of  Ravine  Near  Hernando. 

Feet 


5.  Soil 1 

4.  Brown  loam,  light  in  color 6 

3.  Brown  loam,  dark  in  color 6 

2.  Gravel  and  red  sand 10 

1.  Reddish  clay 


The  rocks  of  Nos.  1 and  2 belong  to  the  Lafayette,  while  those  of 
3 and  4 are  Columbia.  A sample  of  clay  from  No.  4 has  the  following 
physical  properties:  It  requires  10  per  cent  of  water  to  render  it 
plastic.  The  tensile  strength  of  the  raw  clay  is  90  pounds;  when 
soft  burned  its  strength  is  only  85  pounds.  It  bums  to  a red  color. 
The  total  shrinkage  is  only  about  1 per  cent.  The  loss  of  weight  in 
drying  and  burning  is  18  per  cent.  The  burned  brickettes  have  an 
absorption  of  10.76  per  cent. 


GRENADA  COUNTY. 

GEOLOGY. 

The  subformation  of  the  eastern  part  of  Grenada  County  is  the 
Wilcox  (Lagrange).  The  Silicious  Claiborne,  or  Tallahatta  buhrstone, 
underlies  the  western  part  of  the  county.  The  mantle  formations  are 
the  Lafayette,  the  Loess  and  the  Columbia  loam. 


CLAYS  OF  NORTHERN  MISSISSIPPI. 


189 


CLAY  INDUSTRY. 

Grenada. — At  Grenada  the  Columbia  loam  clay  is  used  in  the 
manufacture  of  brick.  The  Carl  Brick  Company  operates  a plant  south 
of  the  Illinois  Central  Railroad  station.  Brick  are  manufactured  by 
the  soft-mud  process  and  are  burned  in  rectangular,  up-draft  kilns 
of  the  scove  type.  About  8 feet  of  clay  is  exposed  in  the  pit.  The 
lower  portion  is  much  more  plastic  than  the  upper  portion.  Two 
samples  of  the  clay  have  the  following  chemical  properties: 


TABLE  61. 

ANALYSES  OF  COLUMBIA  CLAY.  GRENADA. 


Moisture  (H20) 

Volatile  matter  (C02  etc.) 

Silicon  dioxide  (Si02) 

Iron  oxide  (Fe203) 

Aluminum  oxide  (Al203) . . 

Calcium  oxide  (CaO) 

Magnesium  oxide  (MgO) . . 
Sulphur  trioxide  (SO3) 


No.  79 

1.91  2.31 

3.34  2.83 

73.44  73.11 

5.97  5.62 

10.35  10.44 

1.87  1.15 

1.12  .98 

.13  .18 


Total 


98.14  96.62 


RATIONAL  ANALYSIS. 


Clay  substance 26.18  26.41 

Free  silica 61.27  60.84 

Impurities 9.09  8.93 


The  more  sandy  upper  portion  of  the  clay  is  mixed  with  the 
lower  plastic  portion  in  the  manufacture  of  brick.  The  sandy  clay 
has  a total  shrinkage  of  5 per  cent.  It  requires  the  addition  of  17 
per  cent  of  water  to  render  it  plastic.  The  tensile  strength  of  the  raw 
clay  is  55  pounds  per  square  inch.  When  burned  it  has  a strength  of 
94  pounds  per  square  inch.  The  burned  brickettes  have  an  absorp- 
tion of  15.57  per  cent.  The  lower  clay  requires  17.9  per  cent  of  water 
to  render  it  plastic.  The  total  shrinkage  is  7 per  cent.  The  tensile 
strength  in  the  raw  state  is  66  pounds  per  square  inch.  The  burned 
brickettes  have  a strength  of  127  pounds  per  square  inch. 

A shale-like  clay  outcrops  along  the  banks  of  the  Yalobusha 
River  at  Grenada.  At  the  Bledsoe  Brick  Company’s  j)lant  this  clay 
has  a thickness  of  40  feet,  as  shown  by  the  record  of  an  artesian  well 
drilled  by  Mr.  Bledsoe. 


190 


CLAYS  OF  MISSISSIPPI 


TABLE  62. 

RECORD  OF  ARTESIAN  WELL  AT  THE  BLEDSOE  BRICK  YARD, 

GRENADA. 

Thickness  Depth 


Yellow  loam  and  gray  clay 9 feet  9 feet 

White  sand,  water  bearing 12  “ 21  “ 

Dark  clay  shale 40  “ 61  “ 

Sand  and  shale  (water  at  200  feet) 160  “ 200  “ 

Greenish  sand  and  clay 25  “ 225  “ 

Sand  and  clay  (artesian  water  at  465  feet) . 240  “ 465  “ 

Sand,  and  at  475  feet  a hard  flint  rock 10  “ 475  “ 

Sand  and  water 25  “ 500  “ 


The  clay  is  dark  in  color  and  of  low  specific  gravity.  The  follow- 
ing analysis  shows  the  chemical  composition: 


TABLE  63. 

ANALYSIS  OF  SHALE-CLAY,  GRENADA. 

No.  56 a 


Moisture  (HjO) 5.91 

Loss  on  ignition  (CO*  etc.) 8.75 

Silica  (SiOj) 61.80 

Ferric  oxide  (FejOj) 3.88 

Alumina  (Al,Oa) 16.50 

Lime  (CaO) 1.00 

Magnesia  (MgO) .25 

Sulphur  trioxide  (SOs) .19 


Total 98.28 


RATIONAL  ANALYSIS. 


Clay  substance 41.74 

Free  silica 42.40 

Impurities 5.82 


Mr.  O.  F.  Bledsoe  thinks  this  clay  is  suitable  for  the  manufacture 
of  drain  tile,  but  he  has  not  yet  given,  it  a trial.  The  Bledsoe  Brick 
and  Tile  Company  was  established  in  1901.  They  have  the  requisite 
machinery  for  the  manufacture  of  brick  by  the  so  ft -mud,  the  stiff  - 
mud  or  the  dry -press  process.  The  clay  so  far  used  is  a surface  clay, 
having  a thickness  of  about  9 feet.  The  pit  exhibits  the  following 
section : 


Section  of  Clay  Pit  at  Grenada. 


Feet 


4.  Brown  sandy  loam 2 

3.  Whitish  clay 4 

2.  Dark  colored  joint  clay 

1.  White  sand 12 


The  pit  is  located  on  the  second  bottom  of  the  Yalobusha  River. 


CLAYS  OF  NORTHERN  MISSISSIPPI. 


191 


Holcomb. — At  Holcomb,  Fred  Gulo  established  a brick  plant  in 
1906.  The  brick  are  molded  in  a soft-mud  machine  operated  by 
horse  power.  They  are  dried  in  the  sun  in  an  open  yard.  Some  of 
the  brick  are  repressed  before  being  burned  in  up-draft,  scove  kilns. 
The  clay  used  is  a surface  clay  which  is  tempered  by  the  use  of  sand. 
It  is  probably  Columbia  in  age.  The  burned  brick  are  red  in  color. 


HINDS  COUNTY. 

GEOLOGY. 

The  formations  occupying  the  subsurface  of  Hinds  County  are 
Jackson,  Vicksburg,  and  Grand  Gulf.  All  of  these  formations  belong 
to  the  Tertiary  period.  The  Lafayette  and  the  brown  loam  phase 
of  the  Columbia  and  the  alluvium  of  the  Pearl  River  valley  form  the 
unconsolidated  sediments  of  the  mantle  rock.  The  Columbia  loam 
forms  the  surface  of  the  greater  part  of  the  country,  the  Lafayette 
occupying  the  higher  isolated  areas. 

CLAY  INDUSTRY. 


Jackson. — At  Jackson  the  clay  at  the  base  of  the  brown  loam  is 
being  used  in  the  manufacture  of  brick.  The  W.  B.  Taylor  plant 
was  established  in  1881,  and  has  been  in  continuous  operation  since 
that  time.  The  clay  pit  has  the  following  layers: 


Section  of  the  Taylor  Clay  Pit , Jackson. 


Feet 

3.  Soil 1 

2.  Clay,  brown,  jointed  in  lower  part 6-8 

1.  Yellowish  clay  with  gravel  in  upper  part 4 


The  chemical  composition  of  a sample  of  clay  from  No.  2 is  given 


below: 


TABLE  64. 


ANALYSIS  OF  BRICK  CLAY,  JACKSON. 


No.  73 

Moisture  (H2O) 1.80 

Volatile  matter  (CO2  etc.) 4.37 

Silicon  dioxide  (Si02) 75.21 

Iron  oxide  (Fe20a) 5.47 

Aluminum  oxide  (AI2O3) 10.71 

Calcium  oxide  (CaO) .87 

Magnesium  oxide  (MgO) .93 

Sulphur  trioxide  (SO3) .52 


Total 


99.88 


RATIONAL  ANALYSIS. 


Clay  substance 27.09 

Free  silica 62.62 

Impurities 7.79 


192 


CLAYS  OF  MISSISSIPPI. 


The  above  mentioned  clay  is  usee],  in  the  manufacture  of  brick. 
The  whole  section  of  the  clay  is  taken  and  mixed.  The  lower  portion 
of  the  clay  has  a joint  structure,  the  faces  of  the  blocks  being  covered 
with  a white  efflorescence.  This  may  be  a deposit  of  gypsum  brought 
up  from  the  underlying  clay  by  circulating  waters.  The  brown  clay 
has  an  air  shrinkage  of  3^  per  cent.  The  tensile  strength  of  the  raw 
clay  is  50  pounds  per  square  inch.  The  clay  requires  an  addition  of 
17  per  cent  of  water  for  plasticity. 

The  clay  in  No.  1 of  the  Taylor  clay  pit  has  the  following  chemical 
composition: 

TABLE  65. 

ANALYSIS  OF  BRICK  CLAY.  JACKSON. 


No.  72 

Moisture  (H20) 4.25 

Volatile  matter  (C02  etc.) 8.01 

Silicon  dioxide  (Si02) 67.72 

Iron  oxide  (Fe2Os) 5.51 

Aluminum  oxide  (Al2Oa) 10.86 

Calcium  oxide  (CaO) .85 

Magnesium  oxide  (MgO) .70 

Sulphur  trioxide  (SOj) .54 

Total ...  98.44 


RATIONAL  ANALYSIS. 


Cla  y substance 27.47 

Free  silica 12.77 

Impurities 7.60 


The  gravel  lying  on  this  clay  is  probably  Lafayette.  The  clay 
which  rests  upon  the  Jackson  is  probably  residual  clay  from  that  for- 
mation. It  has  a total  shrinkage  of  8 per  cent.  It  requires  17  per 
cent  of  water  for  plasticity.  Its  tensile  strength  raw  is  75  pounds  per 
square  inch;  burned,  it  has  a strength  of  87  pounds.  The  absorption 
of  the  burned  brickettes  is  11.11  per  cent. 

The  Bullard  Brick  Mfg.  Company  also  operates  a plant  at  Jack- 
son.  They  use  the  brown  loam  clay,  which  has  a thickness  varying 
from  6 to  9 feet  (see  Plate  XXXV  B).  The  clay  contains  gravel  at  the 
base  and  rests  upon  a stiff  plastic  clay  which  belongs  to  the  Jackson  for- 
mation. This  company  used  a soft-mud  machine  for  about  three 
years,  but  abandoned  its  use  because  of  excessive  shrinkage  in  the 
clay.  The  plant  was  established  in  1899.  The  brick  are  molded  in  a 
stiff-mud  machine  of  the  auger  type.  -The  brick  are  cut  by  the  use  of 


Plate  XXIX, 


A.  POWER  HOUSE  OF  THE  BULLARD  BRICK  PLANT,  JACKSON. 


B.  CLAY  PIT  OF  THE  BULLARD  BRICK  PLANT,  JACKSON, 


CLAYS  OF  NORTHERN  MISSISSIPPI. 


193 


an  automatic  end-cut  machine.  The  brick  are  dried  in  covered  sheds; 
some  are  stacked  and  others  placed  on  pallets.  They  are  burned  in 
up-draft  kilns  of  the  clamp  type. 

The  brown  loam,  which  is  doubtless  a modified  form  of  the  Loess, 
is  probably  not  thicker  than  20  feet  anywhere  in  the  county.  It  is 
the  best  brick  clay  in  the  county,  but  is  not  of  the  same  quality  in  all 
parts  of  the  county.  In  some  deposits  it  lacks  sufficient  bonding 
power.  In  nearly  all  places  it  presents  two  phases,  a loam  phase  in 
the  upper  part  and  a clay  phase  in  the  lower  part  of  the  deposit. 
The  clay  phase  may  be  but  poorly  represented,  in  which  case  the 
deposit  will  not  be  suited  to  the  manufacture  of  brick. 

HOLMES  COUNTY. 

GEOLOGY. 

Holmes  County  lies  within  the  area  which  is  underlain  by  the 
Claiborne  group.  The  Tallahatta  buhrstone  forms  the  bed-rock  of 
the  northern  part  of  the  county,  and  the  “Claiborne  Calcareous”  the 
southern  pa,it.  The  principal  mantle  rock  formations  belong  to  the 
Lafayette,  the  Loess,  the  Columbia  and  the  Alluvium  of  the  Yazoo 
delta. 


CLAY  INDUSTRY. 

Lexington. — In  the  northern  part  of  the  town  of  Lexington,  the 
stratigraphy  of  some  of  the  surficial  formations  is  revealed  in  numerous 
gullies  or  gulches.  The  soft,  unconsolidated  character  of  the  sedi- 
ments has  developed  a “bad  land”  type  of  topography.  The  general 
stratigraphic  conditions  are  given  below: 

Section  of  the  Lafayette , Lexington. 


Feet 

6.  Soil 1 

5.  Brownish  colored  loam  and  clay 6-10 

4.  Orange  sand  with  white  sandy  clay  gravel 10-15 

3.  White  and  purple  sand  and  clay  with  small  gravel. . . . 6-10 

2.  Larger  gravel  with  some  sand 3-5 

1.  Cross-bedded  reddish  sand 3-6 


Layer  No.  5 is  doubtless  Columbia  loam.  The  remaining  layers 
below  belong  to  the  Lafayette.  These  layers  vary  in  thickness  and 
composition  from  outcrop  to  outcrop.  The  gravels  are  for  the  most 


194 


CLAYS  OF  MISSISSIPPI 


pajt  brown  cherts,  though  there  are  some  white  and  blue  cherts,  and 
some  transparent  quartz  pebbles.  Some  of  the  cherts  are  fossiliferous. 
The  shapes  of  some  are  irregular,  but  the  majority  are  smooth  and  well 
rounded  pebbles.  The  size  of  the  pebbles  vary  from  the  size  of  a pea 
to  a little  larger  than  the  size  of  a man’s  fist.  The  larger  sizes  are  not 
numerous.  The  irregularity  in  the  bedding  of  the  gravel  may  be  seen 
from  figure  14.  ^ _ 1 ’ .j  £]  ^ \ •:  {-j , 


FIGURE  13.  SECTION  OF  THE  LAFAYETTE,  LEXINGTON 


!C~N 


X) 

r* s 


o o 0 0 0'\- 

• O * r\  o 


%VoX<X°-  1 


c 


o °0  0 0 . 


v Q O-p.  o. 


0. 


o 

0 ' f\ 


' <0  On 


'b 


? 0 
**  * 
o .,0  - 


; C)  - . q ^ 

^ . co 


e . 

X 


D 

.0 


. °0  0 Vo 

.0  • V o <v  .- 


■?o:-.es 
\>  • 0 1 

0 o' 


• 1 'O  ^ ' .'  O'-  •=>  \ 

•O  VPX  ? QX  A 0 . 

0 hfl'o,  •v-o°,^  0 & o/  ■ 


, b . b 0 CJ  - O 

|0o  V'o^oV^QW;: 

I ^ 0*)  ' ^ ^ A ^ f\  0 / 

o oXf 

io  °o^#o«>o^vv 

O 5 0.  ^ , 0 A XXPX  '■  X 


p^vOo^  <5  V^o°|  itf/Jd} 

X'  ^ oX'^  /, 


o T •'>)  ^ X 

/ 0;  <>,  '0  ^-o  \^o  \ 

i aXci- 

oXX 


•i 


^6V° 
AXo.o^ 
Xx.aX/1 

pVo  X; 

' J.  ^ vO  ^ r 

(0'X  *V‘ 

X ^Q°’4 

. .Xo®/0 

Poo';  of 


FIGURE  14.  CROSS  BEDDING  IN  THE  LAFAYETTE,  LEXINGTON. 


196 


CLAYS  OF  MISSISSIPPI. 


A sample  of  clay  from  layer  No.  5 has  the  following  composition: 

TABLE  66. 

ANALYSIS  OF  COLUMBIA  CLAY,  LEXINGTON. 

No.  59 


Moisture  (HiO) 1.56 

Volatile  matter  (CO*  etc.) 4.14 

Silicon  dioxide  (SiC>2) 75.65 

Iron  oxide  (FejO*) . 6.20 

Aluminum  oxide  (A1*0») 8.70 

Calcium  oxide  (CaO) 1.50 

Magnesium  oxide  (MgO) 1.60 

Sulphur  trioxide  (SO*) .26 


Total 


99.31 


RATIONAL  ANALYSIS. 


Clay  substance 22.01 

Free  silica 65.42 

Impurities 9.26 


Clay  No.  59  shrinks  about  3 per  cent  in  drying  and  burning.  It 
requires  the  addition  of  16  per  cent  of  water  to  render  it  plastic. 
The  tensile  strength  of  the  raw  clay  is  58  pounds  per  square  inch. 
When  burned  it  has  a strength  of  95  pounds  per  square  inch.  When 
allowed  to  dry  in  the  open  air  it  cracks  badly.  It  lacks  bonding 
power  and  could  be  used  only  by  mixing  with  a more  plastic  clay. 

Durant. — The  Love  Wagon  Manufacturing  Company  has  operated 
a brick  plant  at  Durant  since  1893.  The  first  clay  pit  and  yard  was 
located  east  of  the  line  of  the  Illinois  Central  Railroad.  New  machinery 
was  installed  in  this  yard  in  1897.  In  1905  this  yard  was  abandoned 
and  a new  one  opened  in  the  western  part  of  the  town  on  a spur  of 
the  railroad. 

The  yard  has  been  greatly  enlarged  and  new  machinery  installed. 

The  clay  pit  has  been  opened  to  a depth  of  8 or  10  feet.  The  clay 
is  brownish  yellow  in  color,  but  contains  streaks  of  gray  clay  which 
contain  ironstone  concretions  of  small  size.  Water  is  supplied  to 
the  plant  from  an  artesian  well.  The  record  of  this  well  shows  a 
thickness  of  40  feet  for  the  surface  formation.  At  a depth  of  7 to  8 
feet  a hard  stratum  was  encountered.  Underlying  the  clay  is  a bed 
of  sand.  In  the  old  pit  the  sand  bed  has  a thickness  of  about  15  feet. 
Ironstone  pebbles  are  very  abundant  in  the  lower  part  of  the  bed.  § 

The  clay  is  prepared  in  a granulator  and  disintegrator.  It  is 


Plate  XXX. 


B.  UP-DRAFT  CLAMP  KILNS,  DURANT. 


CLAYS  OF  NORTHERN  MISSISSIPPI. 


197 


tempered  in  a pug  mill  and  molded  in  a stiff -mud  machine.  The  brick 
are  burned  in  rectangular  up-draft  kilns.  A waste  heat  dryer  is  being 
installed. 

KEMPER  COUNTY. 

GEOLOGY. 

The  northeastern  part  of  Kemper  County  has  for  its  subformations 
Cretaceous  strata  belonging  to  the  Selma  and  Ripley  epochs.  The 
remainder  of  the  county  is  occupied  by  Eocene  rock.  The  mantle 
formations  are  Lafayette,  Columbia  and  the  residual  deposits  of  the 
bed-rock. 

CLAY  INDUSTRY. 

Wahalak. — At  Wahalak  the  sticky  Flatwoods  clay  rests  upon  a 
hard  rock,  probably  sandstone.  On  Wahalak  Creek,  1 mile  south 
of  Wahalak,  there  is  exposed  the  following  section: 

Section  on  Wahalak  Creek , One  Mile  South  of  Wahalak. 

Feet 


3.  Yellowish-red  clay 6 

2.  Shally,  friable  sandstone 3 

1.  Blue  limestone 3 


A sample  of  clay  from  the  well  of  D.  V.  Porter  in  Wahalak  has  an 
air  shrinkage  of  10  per  cent  and  a tensile  strength,,  raw,  of  112  pounds 
per  square  inch.  When  burned  its  strength  is  170  pounds.  It  requires 
20  per  cent  of  water  for  plasticity.  The  burned  brickettes  absorb 
11.23  per  cent  of  water.  Mixed  with  10  per  cent  coal  the  absorption 
is  12.5  per  cent.  Total  shrinkage  is  4 per  cent;  the  water  required 
for  plasticity  is  14  per  cent.  The  raw  clay  has  a tensile  strength  of 
77  pounds  per  square  inch;  when  burned  its  strength  is  222  pounds. 
When  mixed  with  10  per  cent  of  Selma  clay  from  Agricultural  and 
Mechanical  College  campus  the  absorption  is  10  per  cent;  has  a tensile 
strength,  raw,  of  111  pounds  per  square  inch,  and  when  burned  105 
pounds  per  square  inch;  its  air  shrinkage  is  only  5 [per  cent;  the 
amount  of  water  required  for  plasticity  is  14  per  cent. 

LAFAYETTE  COUNTY. 

GEOLOGY. 

Lafayette  County  lies  wholly  within  the  Wilcox  division  of  the 
Tertiary.  Resting  upon  the  clays  and  sands  of  this  formation  are 


198 


CLAYS  OF  MISSISSIPPI. 

£*  fc\ 


the  Lafayette  sand  and  clays  and  the  Columbia  loams.  Many  out- 
crops of  fine  pottery  clays  are  found  in  the  Wilcox  in  this  county. 
The  chemical  composition  of  some  of  these  clays  are  given  in  the  table 
below : 

TABLE  67. 

ANALYSES  OF  CLAYS  FROM  THE  WILCOX,  LAFAYETTE  COUNTY. 


No.  1 

No.  2 

No.  3 

No.  4 

No.  5 

Moisture  (H*0) 

.69 

1.14 

1.16 

.90 

1.64 

Volatile  matter  (CO*  etc.) 

. ...  8.20 

9.11 

10.14 

8.35 

8.99 

Silicon  dioxide  (SiO*) 

. ..  60.00 

57.79 

51.88 

60.40 

57.48 

Iron  oxide  (Fe*0*) 

.75 

2.98 

3.53 

1.32 

2.43 

Aluminum  oxide  (Al*Oj) 

...  27.80 

26.03 

30.64 

27.68 

26.94 

Calcium  oxide  (CaO) 

1.38 

.44 

.58 

1.08 

.78 

Magnesium  oxide  (MgO) 

.00 

.10 

.60 

.00 

.27 

Sulphur  trioxide  (SO*) 

20 

.24 

.00 

.00 

.20 

Total 

...  99.02 

97.83 

98.53 

99.73 

98.73 

RATIONAL  ANALYSES. 

Clay  base 

...  70.45 

65.97 

77.65 

70.15 

68.27 

Free  silica 

...  17.35 

17.85 

4.87 

17.93 

16.15 

Fluxing  impurities 

...  2.33 

3.52 

4.71 

2.40 

3.48 

No.  1 is  from  Oxford,  about  3 blocks  east  of  the  courthouse.  No.  2 
is  from  the  street  near  the  colored  schoolhouse  in  Oxford.  No.  3 is 
from  Mr.  Russell’s  farm,  -3  miles  northeast  of  Oxford.  No.  4 is  from 
the  Tubbs  farm,  3 miles  south  of  Oxford.  No.  5 is  from  the  Wyley 
farm,  6 miles  southwest  of  Oxford. 

CLAY  INDUSTRY. 

College  Hill  Station. — The  Brown  loam  clay  is  used  at  College  Hill 
station,  north  of  Oxford,  by  the  Oxford  Brick  and  Tile  Company  in  the 
manufacture  of  pressed  brick.  The  plant  was  first  established  south 
of  Oxford  near  the  oil  mill,  but  the  thickness  of  the  clay  was  not 
adequate  and  the  plant  was  moved  to  College  Hill  station.  The  plant 
was  established  in  1904. 

The  Brown  loam  of  the  county,  by  proper  selection  and  mixture, 
may  be  used  in  the  manufacture  of  brick  by  the  soft-mud,  stiff -mud 
and  dry-press  methods.  Processes  of  denudation  have  removed  the 
loam  in  many  places  to  such  an  extent  that  the  thickness  is  not 
sufficient  to  warrant  the  establishment  of  brick  plants  at  such  points. 
There  are  two  phases  of  the  loam,  a top  sandy  phase  and  bottom 
clayey  phase.  The  latter  in  some  places  is  very  poorly  represented 


Plate  XXXI. 


PUBLIC  BUILDING  AT  DURANT  BUILT  OF  MISSISSIPPI  PRESSED  BRICK. 


CLAYS  OF  NORTHERN  MISSISSIPPI. 


199 


and  such  places  are  undesirable  localities  for  the  manufacture  of  brick 
by  either  the  stiff-mud  or  dry-press  method.  The  white  clays  of  the 
Wilcox  furnish  material  for  the  manufacture  of'  white  or  spotted 
brick  and  a fine  grade  of  stoneware. 


LAUDERDALE  COUNTY* 

' GEOLOGY* 

The  bed-rock  formations  of  Lauderdale  County  are  of  Tertiary 
age.  The  strata  represented  are  the  Wilcox  and  the  Claiborne 
Both  of  these  formations  contain  beds  of  clay.  The  Wilcox  (Lagrange) 
contains  beds  of  pottery  clays.  The  mantle  rocks  are  the  Lafayette 
and  the  Columbia. 

CLAY  INDUSTRY* 

Lockhart. — The  Wilcox  clays  are  utilized  at  Lockhart  in  the  manu- 
facture of  stoneware  by  the  Wedgewood  Stoneware  Company.  The 
clay  is  grayish-white  and  has  the  following  chemical  composition: 


TABLE  68* 

ANALYSIS  OF  WILCOX  STONEWARE  CLAY,  LOCKHART. 


Moisture  (H2O) 

Volatile  matter  (CO2  etc.) 

Silicon  dioxide  (Si02) 

Iron  oxide  (Fe20s) 

Aluminum  oxide  (AI2O3) . 

Calcium  oxide  (CaO) 

Magnesium  oxide  (MgO) . . 


No.  71 
3.14 
7.20 
58.05 
1.05 
27.79 
2.00 
.25 


Total 


99.48 


RATIONAL  ANALYSIS. 


Clay  base 70.42 

Free  silica 15.42 

Fluxing  impurities 3.30 


The  Lockhart  clays  have  been  used  in  Meridian  in  the  manufacture 
of  brick.  The  brick  are  said  to  be  extremely  hard  and  to  approach 
vitrified  paving  brick  in  physical  properties. 

The  Columbia  loam  has  been  used  at  Lockhart  in  the  manufacture 
of  brick  by  Mr.  B.  R.  Brown.  The  brick  are  red  in  color.  They  are 
burned  in  up -dr aft  kilns  of  the  scove  type. 


200 


CLAYS  OF  MISSISSIPPI. 


A sample  of  gray  clay  from  the  Wilcox  formation  on  Mr.  Brown’s 
farm  at  Lockhart  has  the  following  chemical  composition: 

TABLE  69. 

ANALYSIS  OF  WILCOX  CLAY,  LOCKHART.  No  72a 

Moisture  (HjO) 4.29 

Volatile  matter  (CO2  etc.) 7.74 

Silica  (SiOj) 58.21 

Iron  oxide  (FejOg) - *.83 

Aluminum  oxide  (AI2O3) 27.23 

Calcium  oxide  (CaO) .65 

Magnesium  oxide  (MgO) .41 


Total 99.36 

RATIONAL  ANALYSIS. 

Clay  substance 69.00 

Free  silica 16.44 

Impurities 1.89 

Meridian. — At  Meridian  the  Columbia  clay  is  used  in  the  manu- 
facture of  brick  by  the  Bonita  Manufacturing  Company.  The  clay 
is  prepared  by  the  use  of  a granulator  and  tempered  in  a pug  mill. 
The  brick  are  molded  in  an  end-cut,  auger-type,  stiff-mud  machine. 
The  brick  are  burned  in  rectangular  updraft  kilns.  A sample  of  the 
tempered  clay  has  the  following  composition: 

TABLE  70. 

ANALYSIS  OF  BRICK  CLAY,  MERIDIAN.  NOm  93 

Moisture  (H2O) 3.72 

Volatile  matter  (CO2  etc.) 5.34 

Silicon  dioxide  (Si02) 71.58 

Iron  oxide  (Fe20s) 6.95 

Aluminum  oxide  (AI2O3) 10.77 

Calcium  oxide  (CaO) .50 

Magnesium  oxide  (MgO) .19 

Sulphur  trioxide  (SO3) trace 

Total 99.05 

RATIONAL  ANALYSIS. 

Clay  substance 27.23 

Free  silica 55.12 

Fluxing  impurities 7.64 

LEE  COUNTY. 

GEOLOGY. 

The  Selma  chalk  forms  the  bed-rock  of  Lee  County.  It  varies  in 
thickness  from  a few  feet  on  its  eastern  border  to  600  feet  on  its 


CLAYS  OF  NORTHERN  MISSISSIPPI. 


201 


western  border.  The  surface  formations  are  isolated  areas  of  the 
Lafayette,  and  the  residual  clay  of  the  Selma  and  the  Columbia  loam. 
The  clays  of  these  mantle  rocks  are  being  utilized  in  the  manufacture 
of  brick  at  Baldwyn,  Saltillo,  Verona  and  Nettleton.  Brick  were 
also  manufactured  at  Tupelo. 


CLAY  INDUSTRY. 

Baldwyn. — At  Baldwyn,  the  Baldwyn  Brick  and  Tile  Company  has 
opened  a pit  containing  the  following  layers: 

Section  of  Pit  of  the  Baldwyn  Brick  & Tile  Co.,  Baldwyn. 


Feet 

4.  Soil 1 

3.  Sandy  loam  or  sand 1 

2.  Plastic  red  and  blue  clay 6-8 

1.  Sand  (depth  in  well) 7 


The  bottom  portion  of  No.  2 contains  small  ironstone  concretions, 
“buckshot.”  The  clay  from  this  layer  has  a total  shrinkage  of  8 per 
cent.  The  raw  clay  has  a tensile  strength  of  188  pounds  per  square 
inch.  The  soft-burned  brickettes  have  a strength  of  130  pounds  per 
square  inch.  The  addition  of  20  per  cent  of  water  is  required  for 
plasticity.  When  mixed  with  10  per  cent  of  coal  the  clay  has  a total 
shrinkage  of  6 per  cent.  Its  tensile  strength,  raw,  is  153  pounds. 
When  hard  burned  it  has  a strength  of  187  pounds  per  square  inch. 
The  amount  of  water  required  for  plasticity  is  20  per  cent  and  the 
loss  in  burning  10  per  cent.  When  mixed  with  10  per  cent  of  cinders 
it  has  a total  shrinkage  of  6 per  cent  and  requires  16  per  cent  of  water 
to  render  it  plastic.  It  loses  8 per  cent  of  its  weight  in  burning.  The 
tensile  strength  of  the  raw  clay  is  138  pounds  per  square  inch.  When 
burned  it  has  a tensile  strength  of  244  pounds  per  square  inch. 

The  composition  of  a sample  of  the  clay  is  given  below: 


TABLE  71. 


ANALYSIS  OF  CLAY  USED  BY  THE  BALDWYN  BRICK  AND  TILE 
CO.,  BALDWYN. 


No.  114 


Moisture  (H2O) 3.60 

Volatile  matter  (CO2) .04 

Silicon  dioxide  (Si02> 72.72 

Iron  oxide  (Fe20a) 3.96 

Aluminum  oxide  (AI2O3) 12.56 

Calcium  oxide  (CaO) 6.90 

Magnesium  oxide  (MgO) .27 

Sulphur  trioxide  (SO*) .08 


Total 


100.11 


202 


CLAYS  OF  MISSISSIPPI. 


RATIONAL  ANALYSIS. 


Clay  substance 41.75 

Free  silica 43.52 

Impurities 11.20 


Saltillo. — At  Saltillo  the  plant  of  the  Saltillo  Brick  Manufacturing 
Company  is  located  about  i mile  south  of  the  Mobile  and  Ohio  Railroad 
station.  This  company  uses  a surface  clay  in  the  manufacture  of 
brick  by  the  stiff-mud  process.  The  machine  is  of  the  plunger  type. 
No  disintegrator  or  pug  mill  is  used  in  preparing  the  clay.  The  brick 
are  burned  in  rectangular  up-draft  kilns.  Red  is  the  prevailing  color 
of  the  burned  brick. 

The  clay  in  the  upper  part  of  the  pit  is  a sandy  red  clay  overlying 
a sandstone.  Both  of  these  layers  are  probably  of  Lafayette  age. 
The  lower  part  of  the  pit  is  occupied  by  a more  plastic  clay  which  is 
probably  residual  Selma,  since  the  latter  underlies  it.  The  record  of 
the  well  at  the  brick  plant  shows  the  thickness  of  the  Selma  at  this 
point  to  be  about  330  feet. 

The  lower  clay  is  too  plastic  to  be  used  alone.  When  mixed  in 
the  proper  proportion  with  the  sandy  upper  clay  it  makes  a good 
brick. 

Verona. — The  Verona  Brick  and  Tile  Company’s  plant  is  located 
about  i mile  north  of  the  Mobile  and  Ohio  Railroad  station  at  Verona. 
Two  varieties  of  surface  clay  are  employed  in  the  manufacture  of 
brick.  The  bottom  of  the  pit  rests  upon  the  Selma  chalk.  Overlying 
this  bed  is  a plastic  clay  which  has  doubtless  been  derived  from  the 
Selma  by  decomposition  processes.  Resting  upon  the  lower  clay  is 
a red  sandy  clay  which  probably  belongs  to  the  Lafayette.  In  the 
manufacture  of  brick  these  two  clays  are  mixed.  The  clay  is  tempered 
in  a horizontal  pug  mill  and  molded  in  a stiff-mud  machine  of  the 
auger  type.  The  cutter  is  a side-cut  machine.  The  brick  are  dried 
in  rack  and  pallet  driers.  They  are  burned  in  up-draft  kilns  of  the 
clamp  variety. 

The  auger  motion  produces  laminations  in  this  clay  unless  it  has 
been  carefully  tempered.  When  too  large  a proportion  of  the  bottom 
clay  is  used  the  difficulties  of  drying  are  greatly  augmented.  Thorough 
disintegration  and  mixing  are  essential  to  the  best  results.  Gathering 
the  clay  too  close  to  the  limestone  surface  may  result  in  inclusions 
which  cause  flaws  in  the  brick. 


CLAYS  OF  NORTHERN  MISSISSIPPI. 


203 


Nettleton. — The  Nettleton  Manufacturing  Company  operates  a 
brick  plant  at  Nettleton.  The  clay  used  is  from  a surface  deposit 
consisting  of  clay,  loam  and  sand.  It  is  probably  of  Lafayette  age 
for  the  most  part.  The  total  thickness  of  the  formation  is  about  20 
feet;  as  is  shown  by  well  records  in  the  town.  The  upper  portion 
consists  of  yellowish  loam,  below  which  there  is  a sandy  layer,  then  a 
fat  jointed  clay  containing  sandy  streaks.  The  clay  is  prepared  by 
the  use  of  a granulator  and  a disintegrator.  It  is  then  tempered  in 
a pug  mill  and  molded  in  a soft -mud  molding  machine,  operated  by 
steam  power.  The  molds  contain  six  bricks.  They  are  sanded  to 
prevent  the  clay  from  sticking.  The  brick  are  placed  upon  pallets, 
which  are  placed  on  racks  under  covered  sheds.  The  brick  are 
burned  in  rectangular  up-draft  kilns. 

LEFLORE  COUNTY. 

GEOLOGY. 

The  alluvium  of  the  Yazoo -Mississippi  flood  plain  occupies  the 
surface  of  the  greater  part  of  Leflore  County.  Beneath  this  over- 
burden, which  has  an  average  thickness  of  about  50  feet,  lies  the 
Claiborne  formations.  Two  rather  distinct  types  of  the  alluvium  are 
recognizable.  The  first  type  is  a sandy  loam  which  occupies  the  sur- 
face bordering  the  streams.  The  second  type  is  a black,  sticky  clay 
which  occupies  the  surface  of  the  inter-stream  areas  and  is  called 
locally  “buckshot”  land.  Vertically  the  one  type  may  succeed  the 
other  within  a few  feet.  The  change  from  one  type  to  the  other  in 
vertical  and  horizontal  succession  was  produced  by  the  shifting  or 
meandering  of  the  depositing  stream.  When  the  stream  overflows, 
the  water,  which  passes  from  the  stream’s  course  out  over  the  flooded 
plain,  begins  to  lose  its  velocity  as  it  leaves  the  banks  and  to  drop  its 
load,  the  heavier  particles  being  deposited  first,  the  finer  clay  particles 
being  carried  to  the  inter-stream  areas. 

The  clays  of  this  alluvial  deposit  are  used  in  the  manufacture  of 
brick  at  Greenwood,  in  Leflore  County. 

CLAY  INDUSTRY. 

Greenwood . — The  Success  Brick  and  Tile  Company  of  Greenwood  is 
using  clay  from  a pit  which  has  the  following  stratigraphic  relations: 


204 


CLAYS  OF  MISSISSIPPI. 


Section  of  Clay  Pit  at  Greenwood. 

4.  Joint  clay,  black  to  gray  in  color  (top) 

3.  Very  sandy  clay . 

2.  Reddish  tinged  clay 

1.  Blue  clay 


Feet 

5 
4 
4 

6 


The  full  thickness  of  No.  1 is  not  exposed.  Chemical  analyses  of 
layers  Nos.  1 and  2 were  made  with  the  results  given  in  Table  No.  72. 


TABLE  72. 

ANALYSES  OF  CLAYS,  GREENWOOD. 


Moisture  (H*0) 

No.  48 

5.52 

No.  98 
3.22 

No.  99 
5.75 

Volatile  matter  (CO*  etc.) 

4.75 

3.06 

6.55 

Silicon  dioxide  (SiO*) 

72.25 

73.40 

59.32 

Aluminum  oxide  (Al*Oj) . . 

8.44 

6.81 

11.45 

Iron  oxide  (Fe*03) 

4.19 

10.62 

Calcium  oxide  (CaO) 

1.00 

1.12 

1.50 

Magnesium  oxide  (MgO) . . 

. 63 

.44 

1.37 

Sulphur  trioxide  (SO*) 

17 

.17 

2.98 

Total 

99.32 

92.41 

99.54 

Clay  substance 

RATIONAL  ANALYSES. 

17.22 

26.86 

Free  silica 

59.34 

65.40 

46.84 

Impurities 

5.92 

12.48 

Analysis  No.  48  is  from  bed  1 of  the  above  section;  No.  98  is  from 
bed  2,  and  No.  99  is  from  bed  3. 

The  different  layers  of  clay  from  the  above  mentioned  pit  are  mixed 
together  in  the  manufacture  of  brick.  The  brick  are  molded  in  a 
stiff -mud  auger-type  machine  with  an  end-cut.  The  elevating  cars  are 
used  in  the  yard.  The  clay  is  prepared  in  a granulator  and  pug  mill. 

Mr.  W.  O.  Bacon  also  owns  and  operates  a brick  plant  at  Green- 
wood. He  uses  a dark,  alluvium  clay.  The  thickness  of  the  clay  in 
the  pit  is  about  8 feet ; all  of  the  clay  is  utilized.  The  brick  are  molded 
in  a steam-power  machine  of  the  soft-mud  type.  They  are  dried  in 
sheds  in  which  they  are  placed  on  pallets.  The  brick  are  burned  in 
up-draft  kilns  of  the  clamp  type.  An  analysis  of  the  clay  was  made 
with  the  results  shown  in  No.  99.  Some  of  the  clay  in  the  pit  is  more 
siliceous  than  the  sample  taken. 

M inter  City. — At  Minter  City  the  Cowgill  Drain  Tile  Manufacturing 
Company  uses  the  alluvium  clay  in  the  manufacture  of  brick  and  drain 
tile.  Their  pit  is  opened  to  a depth  of  8 feet,  the  clay  being  used  from 


Plate  XXXII 


B.  STRATIFIED  LAFAYETTE  WITH  TALUS,  RAILROAD  CUT,  NEWTON, 


CLAYS  OF  NORTHERN  MISSISSIPPI. 


205 


top  to  bottom.  The  clay  varies  somewhat  in  composition  from  top 
to  bottom  of  the  pit. 

Three  samples  of  clay  from  the  pit  were  analyzed  with  the  follow- 
ing results:  No.  55  from  near  the  top,  No.  56  from  the  middle  portion, 
and  No.  57  from  the  bottom 


TABLE  73. 


ANALYSES  OF 

ALLUVIAL  CLAYS.  MINTER 

CITY. 

No.  55 

No.  56 

No.  57 

Moisture  (H2O) 

5.00 

4.47 

3.75 

Volatile  matter  (CO2  etc.)  . . , 

10.81 

8.17 

7.75 

Silicon  dioxide  (Si02) 

63.27 

62.18 

65.66 

Iron  oxide  (Fe20s) 

6.32 

8.20 

5.40 

Aluminum  oxide  (AI2O3) 

10.43 

12.80 

10.90 

Calcium  oxide  (CaO) 

1.10 

1.50 

1.35 

Magnesium  oxide  (MgO) . . . . 

94 

.79 

1.01 

Sulphur  trioxide  (SO3) 

48 

.31 

.61 

Total 

98.25 

98.42 

96.24 

RATIONAL  ANALYSES. 

Clay  substance 

26.36 

32.38 

27.57 

Free  silica 

52.02 

47.13 

52.85 

Impurities 

8.84 

10.80 

8.38 

Clay  No.  55  requires  the  addition  of  20  per  cent  of  water  to  render 
it  plastic.  It  has  a total  shrinkage  of  about  4 per  cent.  In  the  raw 
state  it  has  a tensile  strength  of  102  pounds  per  square  inch  and  of 
218  pounds  when  burned.  The  absorption  of  the  burned  brickettes, 
made  from  different  layers  and  burned  to  different  degrees  of  hard- 
ness, varies  from  5 to  16.41  per  cent.  The  average  per  cent  of  absorp- 
tion for  7 brickettes  was  13.06  per  cent. 


LOWNDES  COUNTY. 

GEOLOGY. 

The  subsurface  of  Lowndes  County  is  formed  of  Cretaceous  strata 
belonging  to  the  Tuscaloosa,  the  Eutaw  and  the  Selma  divisions. 
The  mantle  rock  formations  are  the  Lafayette,  the  Columbia  and  the 
residual  Selma.  Excellent  outcrops  of  the  Eutaw  are  found  in  the 
bluffs  of  the  Tombigbee  River. 

CLAY  INDUSTRY. 

Columbus . — The  Columbus  Brick  Manufacturing  Company,  oper- 
ated by  Puckett  and  Lindamood,was  established  at  Columbus  in  1900. 


206 


CLAYS  OF  MISSISSIPPI. 


This  company  operates  two  plants  at  Columbus.  Both  are  located 
upon  the  second  bottom  of  the  Tombigbee  River.  The  clay  in  the 
first  pit  is  about  12  feet  thick  and  rests  upon  sand  and  gravel.  The 
upper  portion  is  a yellow  loam.  The  lower  clay  is  blue  in  color,  and 
near  the  bottom  contains  some  limestone  and  pebbles. 

The  clay  in  the  second  pit  has  a yellowish  brown  layer  at  the  top, 
then  a body  of  blue  and  yellow  clay  with  a blue  clay  at  the  bottom. 
The  last  rests  upon  a bed  of  sand.  Both  common  and  repressed  brick 
are  manufactured.  The  brick  are  molded  in  a stiff -mud  end-cut 
machine.  They  are  dried  in  open  sheds  and  in  steam  dryers.  The 
brick  are  burned  in  rectangular  up-draft  kilns  of  the  clamp  type. 

The  Tombigbee  second  bottom  clays  furnish  the  best  clays  for  the 
manufacture  of  brick  in  Lowndes  County.  They  are  probably 
Columbia  in  age.  They  rest  upon  sand  and  gravels  belonging  to 
the  Lafayette 

MADISON  COUNTY. 

GEOLOGY. 

The  Vicksburg  and  Jackson  formations  of  the  Tertiary  are  the  sub- 
formations of  Madison  County.  The  surficial  deposits  belong  to  the 
Lafayette  and  the  Columbia  (brown  loam  phase).  The  last  named 
formation  furnishes  the  brick  material  of  the  county  as  far  as  the 
present  development  of  that  industry  is  concerned. 


CLAY  INDUSTRY. 


Canton. — The  Canton  Brick  Mfg.  Company  at  Canton  operates  a 
plant  near  the  Illinois  Central  Railroad  north  of  the  station.  Three 
kinds  of  clay  are  exposed  in  the  pit;  which  exhibits  the  following 
stratigraphy : 

Section  of  Clay  Pit  at  Canton. 


Feet 


5.  Soil 1 

4.  Brownish  loam 4 

3.  Yellow  clay 3 

2.  Red  joint  clay 3 


1.  Blue  and  yellow  clay 


The  clay  from  No.  1 is  residual  Jackson.  The  clay  from  Nos.  2 
and  3 belong  to  the  Lafayette,  and  that  from  No.  4 is  Columbia. 

^The  lowest  clay  is  very  plastic  and  has  a high|shrinkage,  so  that 
it  cannot  be  used  alone.  It  is  either  mixed* with  the  clay  above  it 


Plate  XXXIII. 


ALLISON  CLAY  PIT,  HOLLY  SPRINGS. 


CLAYS  OP  NORTHERN  MISSISSIPPI. 


207 


or  with  10  per  cent  crushed  cinders.  The  cinders  facilitate  drying 
and  shorten  the  time  of  burning  by  about  24  hours.  The  clay  from 
No.  4 has  a total  shrinkage  of  5 per  cent.  Its  tensile  strength  in  the 
raw  state  is  140  pounds  per  square  inch.  When  burned  it  exhibits 
a strength  of  316  pounds  per  square  inch.  It  requires  16  per  cent  of 
water  to  render  it  plastic.  It  loses  20  per  cent  in  weight  in  drying 
and  burning.  Its  absorption  is  8.33  per  cent. 


TABLE  74, 


ANALYSES  OF  CLAYS,  CANTON. 


No.  87 

Moisture  (H2O) 2.87 

Volatile  matter  (CO2) 3.63 

Silicon  dioxide  (SiOa) 79.28 

Iron  oxide  (Fe20j) 4.12 

Aluminum  oxide  (AI2O3) 4.28 

Calcium  oxide  (CaO) .82 

Magnesium  oxide  (MgO) .36 

Sulphur  trioxide  (SO3) -42 


No.  88 
2.70 
3.10 
73.22 
5.77 
9.58 
2.35 
.18 
.40 


No.  89 
4.67 
1.95 
73.00 
5.47 
9.53 
3.32 
.27 
.70 


Total 


95.98  97.30  98.91 


RATIONAL  ANALYSIS. 


Clay  substance 11.33 

Free  silica 72.43 

Impurities 5.72 


24.23  24.11 
58.57  58.42 
8.70  9.76 


The  clay  from  No.  2 of  the  above  section  is  more  plastic  and 
shrinks  more  in  drying.  It  is  red  in  color  and  has  a joint  structure. 
It  shrinks  in  all  about  8 per  cent  and  requires  the  addition  of  16  per 
cent  of  water.  The  tensile  strength  of  the  raw  clay  is  about  8 per 
cent  and  requires  the  addition  of  16  per  cent  of  water  to  render  it 
plastic.  The  tensile  strength  of  the  raw  clay  is  102  pounds  per 
square  inch.  When  burned  its  tensile  strength  is  275  pounds.  Its 
total  loss  of  weight  in  drying  and  burning  is  27  per  cent,  its  absorp- 
tion is  8.33  per  cent. 


MARSHALL  COUNTY, 

GEOLOGY. 

The  subformation  of  Marshall  County  is  the  Wilcox  (Lagrange) 
division  of  the  Tertiary.  The  formation  consists  of  clays  and  sand. 
The  clays  contain  many  outcrops  of  white  pottery  clays.  The 
mantle-rock  formations  are  the  Lafayette  sands  and  clays  and  the 
Columbia  (brown  loam  phase).  The  stratigraphic  relations  of  these 
formations  are  presented  in  the  record  of  the  Holly  Springs  town  well. 


208 


CLAYS  OF  MISSISSIPPI. 


Record  of  Holly  Springs  Well. 


Thickness  Depth 

10.  Reddish  clay  (Columbia) 20  feet  20  feet 

9.  Red  sand  (Lafayette) 87  “ 107  “ 

8.  Sand  rock  (Lafayette) 1 foot  108  “ 

7.  Clay  (Wilcox — Lagrange) 52  feet  160  “ 

6.  Hard  sandstone  (Wilcox — Lagrange)  .5  foot  160.5“ 

5.  Clay  and  sandstone  (Wilcox — La- 
grange)   139.5  feet  300  “ 

4.  Fine  water  bearing  sand  (Wilcox — 

Lagrange) 40  “ 340  “ 

3.  Pipe  clay  (Wilcox — Lagrange) 13  “ 353  “ 

2.  Coarse  sand  (Wilcox — Lagrange) 4 “ 357  “ 

1.  Sticky  clay  (Porter’s  Creek?) 43  “ 400  “ 


All  layers  between  No.  8 and  No.  1 doubtless  belong  to  the  Wilcox 
(Lagrange).  No.  1 may  be  Porter’s  Creek  (Flatwoods). 


CLAY  INDUSTRY. 

Holly  Springs. — The  white  clays  from  the  Wilcox  are  being  used 
at  Holly  Springs  in  the  manufacture  of  stoneware.  Two  potteries 
are  operated  in  this  place,  one  by  the  Holly  Springs  Stoneware  Com- 
pany and  the  other  by  the  Allison  Stoneware  Company.  Both 
manufacture  a general  line  of  stoneware  and  both  manufacture  the 
fire  brick  used  in  their  own  kilns.  These  brick  are  manufactured 
from  clays  found  near  Holly  Springs.  A highly  silicious  clay  is 
mixed  with  the  white  plastic  clays  which  are  used  in  the  manufacture 
of  stoneware.  The  chemical  composition  of  the  former  is  given 
below.  (Bulletin  No.  3,  A.  and  M.  College,  1905.) 

TABLE  75. 

ANALYSIS  OF  FIRE  CLAY,  HOLLY  SPRINGS. 


No.  25 a 

Moisture  (H2O) .87 

Volatile  matter  (CO2  etc.) 1.93 

Silicon  dioxide  (Si02) 88.52 

Ferric  oxide  (Fe20j) 1.64 

Aluminum  oxide  (ALOj) 5.26 

Calcium  oxide  (CaO) .73 

Magnesium  oxide  (MgO) .13 

Sulphur  trioxide  (SO3) .43 


Total 99.51 

RATIONAL  ANALYSIS. 

Clay  base 13.33 

Free  silica 80.45 

Fluxing  impurities 2.50 


Plate  XXXIV. 


A.  TYPICAL  EROSION  IN  COLUMBIA  LOAM,  HOLLY  SPRINGS. 


B.  LAFAYETTE  OVERLYING  WILCOX,  HOLLY  SPRINGS. 


CLAYS  OP  NORTHERN  MISSISSIPPI. 


209 


The  fire  brick  manufactured  from  above  mentioned  clay  have 
been  used  for  about  25  years  in  some  of  the  kilns  without  removal. 
The  clay  bums  to  a slightly  pink  color  which  disappears  before  vitri- 
fication, leaving  the  brick  white  or  light  cream  in  color.  The  sand 
grains  in  the  clay  are  large.  Some  grains  are  as  large  as  grains  of 
wheat  and  of  a clear,  transparent,  quartz  variety. 

The  stoneware  clays  used  by  the  Holly  Springs  potteries  have 
the  following  chemical  properties: 


TABLE  76. 


ANALYSES  OF  STONEWARE  CLAYS,  HOLLY  SPRINGS. 


Moisture  (H2O) 

Volatile  matter  (CO*  etc.) 
Silicon  dioxide  (Si02) .... 

Iron  oxide  (Fe20j) 

Aluminum  oxide  (Fe20j) . 

Calcium  oxide  (CaO) 

Magnesium  oxide  (MgO) . . 
Sulphur  trioxide  (SOj) . . . , 


No.  20 a No.  19 a 

1.51  .94 

8.07  6.64 

61.69  67.70 

2.04  3.04 

24.91  19.69 

.34  1.06 

.83  .58 

.20  .19 


Total 


99.59  99.84 


RATIONAL  ANALYSIS. 


Clay  base 63.13  49.90 

Free  silica 23.47  37.49 

Fluxing  impurities 3.21  4.68 


No.  20a  is  from  the  Allison  clay  pit,  and  No.  19a  is  from  the  Holly 
Springs  Stoneware  Company’s  pit.  These  pits  are  only  a few  rods 
apart  and  are  located  about  1J  miles  east  of  Holly  Springs. 

The  Holly  Springs  Brick  Mfg.  Company  (Erby  Bros.)  uses  the 
brown  loam  clay  in  the  manufacture  of  brick  by  the  soft-mud 
process.  The  brick  are  molded  by  hand,  dried  in  the  open  air  and 
burned  in  a rectangular  up-draft  kiln.  The  clay  varies  in  compo- 
sition from  a sandy  loam  at  the  top  to  a plastic  joint  clay  in  the  bot- 
tom of  the  pit.  The  thickness  of  the  deposit  is  5 to  6 feet.  A sample 
of  clay  taken  from  near  the  bottom  of  the  pit  was  analyzed  with  the 
following  results: 


210 


CLAYS  OF  MISSISSIPPI. 


TABLE  77. 

ANALYSIS  OF  BRICK  CLAY,  HOLLY  SPRINGS. 


Moisture  (HaO) 1.08 

Volatile  matter  (CO2  etc.) 2.11 

Silicon  dioxide  (SiOj) 80.76 

Iron  oxide  (FejOs) 4.50 

Aluminum  oxide  (A^Oj) 8.50 

Calcium  oxide  (CaO) 1.50 

Magnesium  oxide  (MgO) .45 

Sulphur  trioxide  (SO3) .04 


Total 98.94 

RATIONAL  ANALYSIS. 

Clay  substance 21.50 

Free  silica 70.67 

Impurities 6.49 


The  amount  of  water  which  the  above  mentioned  clay  requires  for 
plasticity  is  19  per  cent.  It  has  a total  shrinkage  of  3 per  cent.  The 
raw  brickettes  have  a tensile  strength  of  42  pounds,  and  when  soft 
burned  the  strength  is  45  pounds  per  square  inch.  The  loss  of  weight 
in  water-smoking  and  burning  is  16  per  cent. 

MONTGOMERY  COUNTY. 

GEOLOGY. 

The  subformations  of  Montgomery  County  are  the  Wilcox  (La- 
grange) and  the  Tallahatta  buhrstone  (Silicious  Claiborne).  The 
surface  formations  belong  to  the  Lafayette  and  the  brown  loam 
phase  of  the  Columbia,  which  is  widely  distributed  over  the  county. 

CLAY  INDUSTRY. 

Winona. — The  Columbia  formation  is  used  at  Winona  in  the  man- 
ufacture of  brick.  The  Jessty  Brick  and  Lumber  Company  manu- 
factures brick  by  the  dry-press  process.  They  use  a mixture  of 
brown  loam  clay  and  a white  clay  from  the  Lafayette.  The  clay  pit 
from  which  the  white  clay  is  taken  is  from  an  outcrop  on  the  Southern 
Railroad  about  1 mile  west  of  town.  It  bums  white  and  leaves 
white  specks  on  the  surface  of  the  brick,  presenting  an  attractive 
appearance.  It  also  reduces  the  shrinkage  of  the  brown  clay  and 
raises  its  fusion  point. 

The  brown  loam  clays  and  the  Wilcox  clays  are  the  sources  of  the 
principal  brick  material  of  this  county. 


CLAYS  OF  NORTHERN  MISSISSIPPI. 


211 


MONROE  COUNTY. 

GEOLOGY. 

The  substrata  of  Monroe  County  belong  to  the  Tuscaloosa,  the 
Eutaw  (Tombigbee),  and'  the  Selma.  The  surficial  formations  are 
the  Lafayette  sands  and  clays  and  the  Columbia  loams.  The  second 
bottom  of  the  Tombigbee  River,  which  crosses  the  county  from  north 
to  south,  is  made  up  of  sand  and  gravel,  overlying  which  is  a bed  of 
clay  grading  into  a loam  at  the  top.  The  river  has  cut  its  trench  into 
the  soft  rock  of  the  Eutaw,  and  for  the  greater  part  of  its  distance 
marks  the  boundary  between  the  Eutaw  and  the  Selma;  the  higher 
Eutaw  bluff  on  the  west  side  of  the  stream  being  capped  with  the  Selma. 
When  not  removed  by  erosion  these  higher  bluffs  are  mantled  with 
Lafayette  and  Columbia. 


CLAY  INDUSTRY. 

Aberdeen. — At  Aberdeen,  just  south  of  the  waterworks,  the  La- 
fayette rests  upon  the  eroded  surface  of  the  Eutaw.  The  line  of 
contact  is  quite  clearly  marked  in  this  instance  by  a thin  layer  of 
friable,  whitish  sandstone.  The  section  exposed  is  as  follows: 


Section  at  Aberdeen.  Feet 

2.  Orange  colored  sand  with  some  clay  lenses,  crossbedded 

with  some  joint  clay  at  the  top 12 

1.  Greenish  sand  (Eutaw) 20 


At  a lower  horizon,  on  the  river  bank  south  of  the  bridge,  about 
30  feet  of  bluish  gray  sand  containing  some  clay  is  exposed.  In 
places  the  sand  contains  fossils  and  micaceous  concretions  containing 
iron  pyrites.  There  are  also  some  sandstone  concretions,  and  in 
one  exposure  a rather  persistent  layer  of  friable  sandstone  from  1 to 
2 feet  in  thickness.  The  clay  pit  belonging  to  the  Aberdeen  Sand- 
Lime  Brick  Company  is  located  on  the  second  bottom  of  the  Tom- 
bigbee River.  The  clay  is  not  being  used  at  the  present  time,  as 
the  company  is  engaged  in  the  manufacture  of  sand-lime  brick.  The 
old  clay  pit  exhibits  the  following  section: 


Old  Clay  Pit  at  Aberdeen.  Feet 

3.  Sandy  loam  soil 1 

2.  Joint  clay,  blue  in  places 7 

1.  Sand 


212 


CLAYS  OF  MISSISSIPPI. 


The  clay  from  No.  2 has  a tensile  strength  in  the  raw  state  of  87 
pounds  per  square  inch.  It  has  a total  shrinkage  of  10  per  cent  and 
loses  11  per  cent  in  weight  in  being  water-smoked  and  burned.  When 
mixed  with  10  per  cent  coal  the  clay  has  a total  shrinkage  of  6 per 
cent  and  requires  17  per  cent  of  water  to  render  it  plastic.  Raw,  it 
has  a tensile  strength  of  140  pounds  per  square  inch,  and  burned  the 
strength  is  263  pounds  per  square  inch.  Loss  of  weight  in  burning 
is  10  per  cent.  The  burned  brickettes  have  an  absorption  of  12.24 
per  cent.  When  mixed  with  10  per  cent  of  cinders  its  shrinkage  is 
6 per  cent.  In  the  raw  state  its  strength  is  175  pounds;  burned,  300 
pounds.  A sample  of  the  clay  has  the  following  chemical  compo- 
sition : 


TABLE  78. 

ANALYSIS  OF  JOINT  CLAY,  ABERDEEN. 

No.  103 


Moisture  (H*0) 4.95 

Volatile  matter  (CO»  etc.) 4.92 

Silicon  dioxide  (SiO*) 71.13 

Iron  oxide  (FejOj) 7.75 

Aluminum  oxide  (A12Oj) 9.12 

Calcium  oxide  (CaO) .42 

Magnesium  oxide  (MgO) .63 

Sulphur  trioxide  (SO3) .08 


Total 99.00 


RATIONAL  ANALYSIS. 


Clay  substance 23.07 

Free  silica 60.41 

Impurities 8.88 


Amory. — At  Amory  the  Tombigbee  second  bottom  clay  is  used  by 
two  companies  in  the  manufacture  of  brick.  The  stratigraphy  of 
the  formation  at  this  point  is  shown  by  the  following  well  record: 


General  Section  of  Amory  Wells. 


Thickness 

Depth 

Surface  loam  and  clay  (Columbia  ?) . . . 

15  feet 

Gravel,  water-bearing  (Lafayette?). . . 

. . . 25  “ 

40  “ 

Blue  sand  (Eutaw) 

...  100  “ 

140  “ 

Sand,  water-bearing  (Eutaw) 

. . . 50  “ 

190  “ 

CLAYS  OF  NORTHERN  MISSISSIPPI. 


213 


The  L.  H.  Tubbs  Brick  Manufacturing  Company  began  the  manu- 
facture of  brie1;  at  Amory  in  1894.  They  use  a stiff-mud  machine  of 
the  plunge;  type. 


Section  of  Clay  Pit,  Amory. 


Feet 


4.  Sandy  soil 1 

3.  Yellowish  loam 3 

2.  Joint  clay,  bluish  and  reddish  tints 7 

1.  Sand  and  gravel 5 


There  is  no  distinct  line  of  separation  between  2 and  3.  The 
clay  of  No.  2 requires  14  per  cent  of  water  for  plasticity.  It  has  a 
total  shrinkage  of  6 per  cent.  Its  tensile  strength,  raw,  is  100  pounds 
per  square  inch,  and  burned,  it  has  a strength  of  220  pounds.  It 
absorbs  11.86  per  cent  of  water  in  the  soft  burned  stages.  Mixed 
with  10  per  cent  of  coal  its  physical  properties  are:  Total  shrinkage, 
6§  per  cent;  tensile  strength,  raw,  150  pounds;  burned,  273  pounds. 
Mixed  with  10  per  cent  of  cinders,  its  physical  properties  are:  Shrink- 
age, 5 per  cent;  tensile  strength,  raw,  155  pounds;  burned,  300 
pounds  per  square  inch. 

The  chemical  composition  of  a sample  of  No.  3 is  given  below: 


TABLE  79. 

ANALYSIS  OF  YELLOW  LOAM  CLAY,  AMORY. 

No.  94 


Moisture  (H  2O) 5.20 

Volatile  matter  (CO 2 etc.) 5.10 

Silicon  dioxide  (Si02) 71.04 

Iron  oxide  (Fe203) 7.92 

Aluminum  oxide  (AI2O3) 9.27 

Calcium  oxide  (CaO) .87 

Magnesium  oxide  (MgO) .31 

Sulphur  trioxide  (SO3) trace 


Total 99.71 


RATIONAL  ANALYSIS. 


Clay  substance 23.45 

Free  silica 56.86 

Fluxing  impurities 9.10 


Mr.  C.  C.  Camp  has  operated  a brick  plant  at  Amory  since  1896. 
In  1904  he  installed  new  machinery.  The  clay  is  molded  in  a stiff- 
mud  machine  of  the  auger  type.  The  die  is  a double  bar  die.  The 


214 


CLAYS  OF  MISSISSIPPI. 


cutter  is  an  automatic  end-cut  machine.  The  clay  pit  is  near  that  of 
the  other  yard,  and  the  stratigraphic  conditions  are  similar.  The 
brick  are  burned  in  rectangular  up-draft  kilns. 


NEWTON  COUNTY. 

GEOLOGY. 

The  southwestern  comer  of  Newton  County  is  underlain  by  the 
Jackson  formation.  The  remainder  of  the  county  is  underlain  by 
the  Claiborne.  The  mantle  rocks  belong  to  the  Lafayette  and  the 
Columbia  and  residual  clays  form  the  bed-rock  formations. 

CLAY  INDUSTRY. 

Newton. — The  surface  formations  are  used  in  the  manufacture  of 
brick  at  Newton.  The  Hancock  Brick  Company  operates  a plant 
South  of  the  Alabama  and  Vicksburg  Railroad,  west  of  town.  The 
brick  are  dried  under  a large  shed  open  at  both  ends.  They  are 
burned  in  rectangular  up-draft  kilns. 

Tjie  clay  is  reddish  with  a yellow  loam  overlying  it.  The 
absorption  of  the  clay  in  the  bottom  layer  is  9.52  per  cent,  and  the 
absorption  of  that  in  the  top  layer  is  13.79  per  cent. 

In  a railroad  cut  on  the  Mobile,  Jackson  and  Kansas  City  Railroad, 
south  of  town,  there  is  an  exposure  of  the  following  formations: 

Section  of  Surface  Formations  at  Newton. 


Feet 

3.  Yellow  loam  with  some  pebbles 6-8 

2.  Orange  sand  with  silicious  pebbles 6-10 

1 . Red  sand  with  white  clay  partings 6-8 


No.  1 contains  partings  of  clay  and  has  an  irregular  stratification. 
In  some  places  the  partings  are  in  the  nature  of  very  fine  white  lines, 
as  though  they  had  been  drawn  by  the  painter’s  brush  or  a grainer. 
The  top  of  this  layer  is  somewhat  conglomerate,  small  masses  of 
clay  being  mixed  with  the  sand. 

The  pebbles  of  No.  2 are  more  numerous  at  the  top.  No.  3 appears 
to  be  a weathered  product  of  No.  2.  If  Nos.  1 and  2 are  Lafayette, 
as  seems  probable,  then  No.  3 doubtless  represents  the  Columbia. 


Plate  XXXV, 


A.  CLAY  PARTINGS  IN  LAFAYETTE  SANDS,  NEWTON. 


B.  EROSION  IN  LAFAYETTE  SANDS  BY  UNDERGROUND  WATER,  NEWTON 


CLAYS  OF  NORTHERN  MISSISSIPPI. 


215 


TABLE  80. 


ANALYSES  OF  CLAYS,  NEWTON. 

No.  91 


Moisture  (H2O) 1.52 

Volatile  matter  (CO2  etc.) 3.08 

Silicon  dioxide  (Si02) 84.54 

Iron  oxide  (Fe20a) 4.12 

Aluminum  oxide  (AI2O3) .60 

Calcium  oxide  (CaO) 5.83 

Magnesium  oxide  (MgO) .22 

Sulphur  trioxide  (SO3) .23 


No.  92 
2.32 
3.20 
82.82 
3.75 
7.05 
.50 
.17 
.00 


Total 


100.14  99.41 


RATIONAL  ANALYSIS. 

Clay  substance 

Free  silica 

Impurities 


1.50  17.83 
83.63  71.54 
10.40  4.42 


No.  91  is  from  the  Hancock  pit;  No.  92  is  from  ah  outcrop  \ 
mile  west.  The  physical  properties  of  No.  91  are:  Water  required 
for  plasticity,  20  per  cent;  total  shrinkage,  10  per  cent;  tensile 
strength  of  raw  clay,  87  pounds  per  square  inch;  burned,  150  pounds 
per  square  inch.  No.  92  has  the  following  physical  properties: 
Total  shrinkage,  1 per  cent;  water  required  for  plasticity,  17  per 
cent;  tensile  strength,  raw,  37  pounds;  burned,  53  pounds  per  square 
inch.  It  is  deficient  in  bonding  matter. 


NOXUBEE  COUNTY. 

GEOLOGY. 

The  subsurface  of  Noxubee  County  is  the  Selma  and  the  Ripley 
divisions  of  the  Cretaceous,  and  the  Wilcox.  The  surficial  formations 
are  isolated  outcrops  of  the  Lafayette,  the  Columbia  and  the  residual 

Selma  clays. 

CLAY  INDUSTRY. 

Macon. — The  surface  clays  are  used  at  Macon  by  the  Cline  Brick 
Manufacturing  Company  in  the  manufacture  of  brick  by  the  soft- 
mud  process.  The  clay  is  tempered  in  a ring  pit.  The  brick  are 
molded  by  hand  and  burned  in  rectangular  up-draft  kilns.  In  the 
clay  pit,  about  8 feet  of  clay  rests  upon  the  Selma  chalk.  The  clay 
in  the  upper  portion  of  the  bed  is  red  in  color  and  of  a coarse,  sandy 
texture.  It  is  probably  Lafayette.  The  lower  portion  of  the  clay  is 


216 


CLAYS  OF  MISSISSIPPI. 


more  plastic  and  cannot  be  used  alone  on  account  of  sticking  in 
molds  in  molding,  and  of  checking  and  cracking  in  drying. 

The  Selma  chalk  contains  concretions  of  iron  pyrites  which,  upon 
exposure  to  the  atmosphere,  oxidize  producing  ferrous  sulphate  and 
sulphuric  acid  which  act  upon  the  limestone.  The  limestone  being 
dissolved,  the  insoluble  clay  which  it  contains  is  left  behind,  and 
accumulates  to  form  a thick  bed.  The  clay  immediately  overlying 
the  limestone  is  greenish  in  color,  a condition  probably  due  to  the 
presence  of  ferrous  sulphate.  Concretions  of  iron  oxide  also  occur 
along  the  line  of  contact  between  the  clay  and  the  limestone.  These 
are  formed  by  the  oxidation  of  the  iron  pyrites  nodules. 

The  following  analyses  are  of  two  samples  of  the  Selma  chalk 
from  Macon: 

TABLE  81. 


ANALYSES  OF  SELMA  LIMESTONES  No.  100,  MACON. 


Moisture  (H20) 

Volatile  matter  (C02  etc.) 

Silicon  dioxide  (Si02) 

Aluminum  oxide  (AI2O3) . 

Iron  oxide  (Fe203) 

Calcium  oxide  (CaO) 

Magnesium  oxide  (MgO) . . 
Sulphur  trioxide  (SO3) 

Total 


No.  1 

No.  2 

1.25 

.95 

36.28 

35.15 

9.18 

13.03 

.00 

5.25 

3.50 

2.18 

45.92 

41.56 

.84 

.36 

.34 

.64 

97.31 

99.12 

No.  2 was  collected  by  A.  F.  Crider  from  Macon  Bluff  on  the 
Tombigbee  River. 

The  greenish  colored  clay  overlying  the  limestone  has  the  follow- 
ing chemical  constituents: 


TABLE  82, 

ANALYSIS  OF  RESIDUAL  SELMA  CLAY,  MACON. 

No.  101 


Moisture  (H20) 11.60 

Volatile  matter  (C02  etc.) 10.00 

Silicon  dioxide  (Si02) 50.51 

Aluminum  oxide  (Al2Os) 17.31 

Iron  oxide  (Fe2Os) 5.75 

Calcium  oxide  (CaO) 2.70 

Magnesium  oxide  (MgO) 1.40 

Sulphur  trioxide  (SOj) .21 


Total, 


99.48 


RATIONAL  ANALYSIS. 


Clay  substance 43.79 

Free  silica 30.16 

Impurities 10.06 


Plate  XXXVI. 


A.  RESIDUAL  CLAY  AND  LAFAYETTE  OVERLYING  SELMA  CHALK,  MACON. 


B.  SELMA  CHALK  ON  NOXUBEE  RIVER,  MACON. 


CLAYS  OF  NORTHERN  MISSISSIPPI. 


217 


There  is  but  little  doubt  that  the  above  mentioned  clay  has  been 
derived  from  the  Selma  limestone,  the  decomposition  of  which  was 
influenced  by  the  decomposition  of  the  iron  pyrites  present  in  the 
limestone.  This  bottom  clay  is  too  fat  to  be  used  in  the  manufacture 
of  brick.  It  sticks  to  the  molds  when  used  in  the  soft -mud  machine 
and  cracks  in  drying  when  used  in  the  stiff -mud  machine.  The  La- 
fayette clay  lying  above  the  residual  Selma  is  much  leaner  and  con- 
tains a high  per  cent  of  iron.  The  chemical  analysis  of  the  Lafayette 
clay  from  Macon  follows: 


TABLE  83. 

ANALYSIS  OF  CLAY,  MACON. 

No.  77 


Moisture  (H20) 7.59 

Volatile  matter  (C02  etc.) 7.75 

Silicon  dioxide  (Si02) 57.25 

Iron  oxide  (Fe2Oa) 18.95 

Aluminum  oxide  (A12Os) 6.17 

Calcium  oxide  (CaO) 1.05 

Magnesium  oxide  (MgO) .95 

Sulphur  trioxide  (SO3) .21 


Total 99.92 


RATIONAL  ANALYSIS. 

Clay  substance 15.61 

Free  silica 50.00 

Impurities " 27.16 


In  the  manufacture  of  brick  the  best  results  are  to  be  obtained 
by  mixing  the  Lafayette  clay  with  the  Selma  residual  clay.  Near 
the  railroad  station  at  Macon  there  is  a residual  clay  which  is  probably 
derived  from  the  Flatwoods  clay.  The  grain  of  the  clay  is  fine  and 
it  has  shrinkage  of  15  per  cent.  The  tensile  strength  of  the  raw  clay 
is  87  pounds ; the  burned  clay  has  a strength  of  78  pounds ; the  water 
required  for  plasticity  is  18  per  cent;  the  amount  of  absorption  of 
the  burned  clay  is  8.69  per  cent.  The  absorption  of  the  Lafayette 
clay  is  11.42  per  cent. 


218 


CLAYS  OF  MISSISSIPPI. 


OKTIBBEHA  COUNTY. 

GEOLOGY. 

The  bed-rock  formations  of  Oktibbeha  County  belong  to  the 
Cretaceous  and  the  Tertiary  periods.  The  Selma  chalk  and  a few 
outliers  of  the  Ripley  are  present  in  the  eastern  part  of  the  county. 
The  western  part  of  the  county  is  underlain  by  the  Wilcox-Eocene. 
The  mantle  deposits  are  Lafayette,  residual  Selma  and  Columbia. 
The  last  two  are  well  represented  in  the. western  part  of  the  county, 
but  only  by  isolated  outcrops  in  the  eastern  half.  The  residual 
Selma  clay  and  the  Columbia  are  used  in  the  manufacture  of  brick 
in  Starkville. 

CLAY  INDUSTRY. 

Starkville. — At  Starkville  the  Howard  Brick  Manufacturing  Com- 
pany uses  a clay  which  rests  directly  upon  the  surface  of  the  Selma 
chalk.  The  greater  part  of  the  clay  deposit  was  formed  doubtless  by 
the  decomposition  of  the  limestone.  The  limestone  immediately 
below  the  clay  is  partly  decomposed  and  contains  19.30  per  cent  of 
clay.  The  following  analyses  show  the  composition  of  the  lime- 
stone and  the  clay  immediately  above: 


TABLE  84. 


ANALYSES  OF  LIMESTONE  AND  CLAY,  STARKVILLE. 


Moisture  (H20) 

Volatile  matter  (C02  etc.) 

Silicon  dioxide  (Si02) 

Iron  oxide  (Fe2Oa) 

Aluminum  oxide  (AI2O3) . 

Calcium  oxide  (CaO) 

Magnesium  oxide  (MgO)  . . 
Sulphur  trioxide  (S02) . . . 


No.  40 

No.  41 

.85 

4.75 

23.15 

2.27 

20.60 

65.30 

4.62 

12.18 

7.63 

12.63 

41.81 

1.50 

.81 

.63 

.25 

.25 

Total 


99.72  99.51 


RATIONAL  ANALYSIS. 

Clay  substance 19.30  31.95 

Free  silica 11.73  51.45 

Impurities 47.49  14.18 

No.  40 — Selma  limestone. 

No.  41 — Residual  Selma  clay. 


Samples  of  clay  and  limestone  taken  from  another  part  of  the  pit 
have  the  following  composition: 


CLAYS  OF  NORTHERN  MISSISSIPPI. 


219 


TABLE  85. 


ANALYSES  OF  SELMA  LIMESTONE  AND  OVERLYING  CLAY,  STARK- 


VILLE-  No.  9 No.  10 

Moisture  (H20) 75  .55 

Volatile  matter  (CO2) 28.20  .97 

Silicon  dioxide  (Si02) 17.03  76.60 

Iron  oxide  (Fe203) 3.33  2.00 

Aluminum  oxide  (AI2O3) 21.00  18.37 

Calcium  oxide  (CaO) 29.29  .90 

Magnesium  oxide  (MgO) .00  .00 

Sulphur  trioxide  (SO3) .72  .70 

Potassium  oxide  (K20) .00  .00 

Sodium  oxide  (Na20) .00  .00 


Total 


100.32  100.09 


RATIONAL  ANALYSIS. 

Clay  substance 53.13  46.47 

Free  silica 7.66  55.00 

Impurities 33.34  3.60 

No.  9 — Selma  limestone. 

No.  10 — Residual  Selma  clay. 


The  sample  of  limestone  was  taken  from  immediately  below  the 
clay.  It  contains  53.13  per  cent  of  clay  substance,  or  is  more  than 
half  clay.  The  clay  sample  was  from  near  the  bottom  of  the  clay 
deposit.  The  bottom  clay  is  usually  too  plastic,  and  has  too  high  a 
shrinkage  to  be  used  alone  in  the  manufacture  of  brick.  The  proper 
texture  and  shrinkage  is  obtained  by  mixing  the  more  sandy  top  clay 
with  the  bottom  clay.  The  top  clay  contains  considerable  non-plastic 
material.  The  clay  immediately  overlying  the  limestone  requires 
careful  selection  to  prevent  defects  in  the  brick,  because  it  contains 
in  places  nodules  or  concretions  of  limestone  and  ironstone.  These 
nodules  are  liable  to  break  the  wires  of  the  cutter,  and  to  produce 
cavities  or  fused  masses  in  the  brick.  The  limestone  nodules  represent 
the  more  insoluble  portions  of  the  chalk,  such  as  the  casts  of  shells 
and  the  concretions  of  which  fossils  form  the  nuclei.  The  iron  nodules 
were  formed  doubtless  by  the  oxidation  of  concretionary  nodules  of 
iron  pyrites,  which  are  not  of  uncommon  occurrence  in  the  chalk. 

The  oxidation  of  the  pyrite  produces  sulphuric  acid,  which  attacks 
the  calcium  carbonate,  forming  calcium  sulphate  (gypsum),  which  is 
soluble  in  water  and  thus  may  be  dissolved  out  as  the  clay  weathers. 
The  chemical  reaction  is  as  follows:* 


FeS2  + 60=FeSO4-fSO2  or 
FeS2  + 30  = H20  + FeS04  + H2S 


♦Van  Hise,  Metamorphism,  p.  214. 


220 


CLAYS  OF  MISSISSIPPI. 


The  iron  sulphate  (FeS04)  may  be  changed  to  iron  oxide,  limonite, 
by  oxidation  and  hydration: 

FeS04  + 20  + 7H20  = 2Fe203  + 3H20  + 4H2S04 

The  sulphuric  acid  (H2S04)  then  reacts  with  the  calcium  carbonate 
to  produce  calcium  sulphate : 

CaC03  + H2S04  = CaS04  + H20  + C02 
or  the  iron  sulphate  may  react  directly  in  the  following  manner: 
FeS04  CaC03  = CaS04  + FeCOg 

The  sulphuric  acid,  together  with  the  action  of  the  acids  produced 
by  decaying  vegetation,  dissolve  out  the  limestone  and  cause  the 
accumulation  of  the  insoluble  clay  residue. 

Agricultural  and  Mechanical  College. — The  residual  Selma  clay  also 
occurs  on  the  campus  of  the  State  Agricultural  and  Mechanical  College. 
From  an  excavation  made  during  the  construction  of  the  steam  pipe 
tunnel,  the  following  samples  were  taken  from  a point  immediately 
in  front  of  the  Mess  Hall.  The  analyses  of  these  samples  are  recorded 
below : 

TABLE  86. 

ANALYSES  OF  LIMESTONE  AND  CLAYS,  AGRICULTURAL  COLLEGE. 


No.  64 

No.  65 

No.  66 

No.  67 

No.  68 

No.  69 

Moisture  (H2O) 

1.50 

6.02 

5.50 

5.00 

4.46 

5.36 

Volatile  matter  (C02) 

24.50 

6.50 

5.00 

4.35 

5.65 

2.78 

Silicon  dioxide  (Si02) 

29.98 

63.35 

67.60 

69.35 

66.85 

66.51 

Aluminum  oxide  (Al2Os) 

5.60 

13.70 

12.55 

12.65 

12.05 

15.10 

Iron  oxide  (Fe203) 

5.45 

7.90 

7.60 

6.80 

7.07 

7.00 

Calcium  oxide  (CaO) 

31.62 

.80 

.80 

.50 

1.62 

1.00 

Magnesium  oxide  (MgO) 

.14 

.60 

.78 

.58 

.18 

.58 

Sulphur  trioxide  (SO3) 

.21 

.34 

.17 

.42 

.08 

.31 

Total 

99.00 

99.21 

100.00 

99.65 

97.96 

98.64 

RATIONAL  ANALYSIS. 

Clay  substance 

14.16 

34.66 

31.75 

32.00 

30.48 

38.20 

Free  silica 

23.40 

47.24 

43.85 

54.48 

48.42 

48.76 

Impurities 

37.42 

9.64 

9.35 

8.30 

8.95 

8.89 

No.  64  is  the  limestone  or  chalk  immediately  underlying  the  clay. 
Nos.  65  to  69,  inclusive,  are  samples  of  clay  from  the  tunnel  taken  in 
order  from  bottom  to  top  of  the  first  5 feet  of  clay,  one  sample  being 
taken  from  each  successive  foot.  The  absorption  of  No.  64  is  18 
per  cent.  Clay  No.  65  has  a total  shrinkage  of  8 per  cent;  it  requires 
16  per  cent  of  water  for  plasticity;  it  has  a tensile  strength,  raw,  of 
133  pounds  per  square  inch,  and  when  burned  has  a strength  of  146 


CLAYS  OP  NORTHERN  MISSISSIPPI. 


221 


pounds  per  square  inch.  It  loses  12  per  cent  in  weight  in  being  burned, 
and  has  an  absorption  of  7.27  per  cent.  When  mixed  with  10  per  cent 
of  coal  it  requires  14  per  cent  of  water  to  render  it  plastic.  The  loss 
of  weight  in  the  soft -burned  brickettes  is  15  per  cent.  It  has  a total 
shrinkage  of  3J  per  cent.  The  tensile  strength  of  the  raw  clay  is  119 
pounds  per  square  inch.  When  burned  it  has  a strength  of  150  pounds 
per  square  inch.  Its  absorption  is  12.24  per  cent.  When  mixed  with 
10  per  cent  of  cinders  the  clay  has  a total  shrinkage  of  3J  per  cent; 
requires  15  per  cent  of  water  for  plasticity;  has  a tensile  strength, 
raw,  of  72  pounds  per  square  inch,  and  when  burned  a strength  of 
153  pounds  per  square  inch.  Its  loss  of  weight  in  burning  is  14  per 
cent.  Its  absorption  is  12.9  per  cent. 

Clay  No.  66  has  a total  shrinkage  of  6 per  cent.  It  requires  15 
per  cent  of  water  for  plasticity.  The  loss  in  burning  is  12  per  cent. 
The  tensile  strength  of  the  raw  clay  is  94  pounds  per  square  inch. 
When  burned  it  has  a strength  of  250  pounds  per  square  inch.  Its 
absorption  is  9.8  per  cent. 

Clay  No.  67  has  a total  shrinkage  of  5J  per  cent.  It  requires  14 
per  cent  of  water  for  plasticity.  The  loss  of  weight  in  burning  is  14 
per  cent.  The  raw  clay  has  a tensile  strength  of  94  pounds  per  square 
inch  and  when  burned  its  strength  is  240  pounds  per  square  inch. 
Its  absorption  is  9.4  per  cent.  When  mixed  with  10  per  cent  of  coal 
the  clay  requires  16  per  cent  of  water;  shrinks  3J  per  cent;  has  a 
tensile  strength,  raw,  of  77  pounds  and  soft -burned  of  106  pounds 
per  square  inch.  When  mixed  with  10  per  cent  of  cinders  it  requires 
14  per  cent  of  water;  has  a total  shrinkage  of  3J  per  cent.  The  raw 
clay  has  a strength  of  66  pounds  and  the  burned  clay  a strength  of 
131  pounds  per  square  inch.  Its  absorption  is  15.09  per  cent. 

Clay  No.  68  requires  16  per  cent  of  water;  it  has  a total  shrinkage 
of  5 per  cent;  its  loss  of  weight  in  burning  is  13  per  cent;  its  tensile 
strength,  raw,  is  133  pounds  per  square  inch.  When  burned  it  has  a 
strength  of  312  pounds  per  square  inch.  Its  absorption  is  9.61  per 
cent. 

Clay  No.  69  requires  17  per  cent  of  water  for  plasticity.  The  total 
shrinkage  of  the  clay  is  5 per  cent.  The  tensile  strength  of  the  raw 
clay  is  105  pounds  per  square  inch.  The  strength  of  the  burned  clay 
is  333  pounds  per  square  inch.  Its  absorption  is  13.55  per  cent. 
The  average  absorption  of  all  except  No.  64  is  10.12  per  cent. 


222 


CLAYS  OP  MISSISSIPPI. 


In  an  excavation  for  a sewer  line  a few  rods  south  of  the  above 
mentioned  tunnel,  a bed  of  clay  was  exposed  resting  upon  the  surface 
of  the  chalk.  A sample  of  the  chalk  and  one  sample  from  the  bottom 
and  one  sample  from  the  middle  of  the  clay  deposit  were  taken  and 
analyzed  with  the  following  results: 

TABLE  87. 


ANALYSES  OF  LIMESTONE  AND  CLAYS,  AGRICULTURAL  COLLEGE. 


Moisture  (H20) 

No.  35 

81 

No.  36 
4.06 

No.  37 
2.95 

Volatile  matter  (C02  etc.) 

28.61 

8.60 

10.90 

Silica  (Si02) 

27.05 

60.43 

56.97 

Iron  oxide  (Fe2Oj) 

5.45 

10.05 

10.40 

Aluminum  oxide  (AUO3) . , 

6.45 

13.15 

15.09 

Calcium  oxide  (CaO) 

30.21 

2.13 

1.00 

Magnesium  oxide  (MgO)  . . 

00 

.54 

1.25 

Sulphur  trioxide  (SO3) 

32 

.36 

.34 

Total 

98.90 

99.32 

98.90 

Clay  substance 

RATIONAL  ANALYSIS. 
16.31 

33.26 

38.17 

Free  silica 

20.47 

45.97 

39.23 

Impurities 

35.93 

12.08 

12.99 

No.  35 — Selma  chalk. 

Nos.  36  and  37 — Residual  Selma  clays. 


Maben. — The  Maben  Brick  Manufacturing  Company,  of  Maben, 
began  the  manufacture  of  brick  in  1905.  Two  kinds  of  clay  are  used. 
One  kind  is  a white  clay  from  the  B.  F.  Sanders  farm,  a few  miles 
west  of  Maben.  The  clay  belongs  to  the  Wilcox  (Lagrange)  division 
of  the  Lignitic.  It  remains  white  when  burned.  Its  shrinkage  is 
very  low.  The  chemical  composition  of  a sample  is  given  below: 

TABLE  88. 

ANALYSIS  OF  WHITE  CLAY,  MABEN. 

No.  59 a 


Moisture  (H20) 1.47 

Volatile  matter  (C02  etc.) 9.24 

Silica  (Si02) 59.82 

Iron  oxide  (Fe2Os) 1.26 

Aluminum  oxide  (Al2Os) ' 27.19 

Calcium  oxide  (CaO) .49 

Magnesium  oxide  (MgO) .37 

Sulphur  trioxide  (SO3) .31 


Total 


100.15 


RATIONAL  ANALYSIS. 


Clay  substance 68.80 

Free  silica 18.21 

Impurities 2.43 


CLAYS  OF  NORTHERN  MISSISSIPPI. 


223 


The  above  mentioned  plant  also  uses  a surface  clay  belonging  to 
the  yellow  loam  phase  of  the  Columbia.  The  clay  pit  has  the  follow- 
ing stratigraphy: 

Section  of  Clay  Pit , Maben. 

Feet 


2.  Sandy  loam,  gray  to  yellow 2 

1.  Clay,  gray  in  color 6 


In  the  bottom  of  the  pit  there  are  numerous  ironstone  concretions. 

The  brick  burned  from  the  surface  clay  vary  in  color  from  bright 
red  to  chocolate.  They  are  molded  in  a stiff-mud  machine  of  the 
auger  type.  The  clay  is  prepared  in  a granulator  and  disintegrator 
and  tempered  in  a horizontal  pug  mill.  The  brick  are  burned  in 
rectangular  up-draft  clamp  kilns.  The  brick  are  dried  by  being 
packed  on  pallets  and  placed  on  racks  in  covered  sheds. 


PANOLA  COUNTY. 

GEOLOGY. 

The  Wilcox  forms  the  subsurface  of  Panola  County.  The  mantle 
rocks  consist  of  the  alluvial  deposits  of  the  Yazoo  basin,  the  Loess, 
the  Lafayette  and  the  Columbia.  The  clay  from  the  last  named 
formation  is  used  in  the  manufacture  of  brick. 

CLAY  INDUSTRY. 

Sardis. — At  Sardis  the  clay  from  the  Columbia  is  employed  in  the 
manufacture  of  brick  by  the  Buchanan  Brick  Manufacturing  Com- 
pany. The  brick  are  molded  by  the  soft-mud  process.  The  clay  is 
prepared  in  a disintegrator  and  tempered  in  a pug  mill.  It  is  then 
molded  in  a soft-mud  machine  which  is  operated  by  steam  power. 
The  brick  are  burned  in  rectangular  up-draft  kilns. 

The  clay  in  the  pit  has  a thickness  of  8 to  10  feet.  The  upper 
portion  is  much  leaner  than  the  basal  portion.  The  following  analysis 
gives  the  composition  of  the  latter: 


224 


CLAYS  OF  MISSISSIPPI. 


TABLE  89. 


ANALYSIS  OF  COLUMBIA  CLAY,  SARDIS.  No.  80 

Moisture  (H20) 2.90 

Volatile  matter  (C02  etc.) 2.42 

Silicon  dioxide  (Si02) 74.41 

Iron  oxide  (Fe2Os) 5.37 

Aluminum  oxide  (AI2O3) 12.22 

Calcium  oxide  (CaO) 1.40 

Magnesium  oxide  (MgO) 1.25 

Sulphur  trioxide  (SO3) .03 


Total 100.00 

RATIONAL  ANALYSIS. 

Clay  substance 30.91 

Free  silica 60.04 

Impurities 8.05 


The  physical  properties  of  the  Sardis  clay  are  as  follows:  The  clay 
requires  18  per  cent  of  water  to  render  it  plastic.  It  has  a total 
shrinkage  of  6 per  cent.  The  raw  brickettes  show  a tensile  strength 
of  111  pounds  per  square  inch,  and  when  burned  they  have  a strength 
of  140  pounds  per  square  inch.  The  loss  in  burning  is  5 per  cent  of 
the  weight  and  the  absorbtive  power  of  the  burned  clay  is  14.51  per 
cent.  The  minimum  amount  of  bonding  power  is  exhibited  by  the 
clay  from  the  upper  portion  of  the  pit.  The  basal  clay  requires  the 
addition  of  non-plastic  material  for  the  manufacture  of  soft-mud 
brick. 

Batesville. — No  brick  are  being  manufactured  at  Batesville  at 
present.  No  doubt  the  Brown  loam  clays  which  are  well  represented 
there  could  be  utilized  with  the  same  degree  of  success  that  has  been 
attained  in  other  parts  of  the  county.  The  unweathered  Loess 
which  lies  at  the  base  of  the  Columbia  cannot  be  used  alone  in  the 
manufacture  of  brick.  It  lacks  bonding  power.  The  following  analy- 
sis is  of  a sample  of  unweathered,  or  but  slightly^  weathered, ’Loess 
from  Batesville. 

TABLE  90. 

ANALYSIS  OF  UNWEATHERED  LOESS,  BATESVILLE.  No.  78 


Moisture  (H20) 1.81 

Volatile  matter  (C02) 3.20 

Silicon  dioxide  (Si02) 75.11 

Iron  oxide  (Fe2Os) v 5.50 

Aluminum  oxide  (A12Oj) 10.70 

Calcium  oxide  (CaO) .60 

Magnesium  oxide  (MgO) .47 

Sulphur  trioxide  (S02) .00 


Total 


97.39 


CLAYS  OF  NORTHERN  MISSISSIPPI. 


225 


RATIONAL  ANALYSIS. 


Clay  substance 27.07 

Free  silica 62.53 

Impurities 6.57 


The  aluminum  in  analysis  No.  78  is  probably  largely  contained 
in  undecomposed  feldspars.  This  fact  undoubtedly  accounts  for  the 
low  bonding  power  of  the  clay.  The  best  residual  clays  from  this 
formation  are  to  be  found  in  areas  where  the  Loess  has  not  been  sub- 
jected to  rapid  erosion.  Second  bottom  deposits  usually  afford  the 
best  clays. 

The  physical  properties  of  the  above  mentioned  Loess  clay  are  as 
follows:  It  requires  18  per  cent  of  water  for  plasticity.  The  air 
shrinkage  is  4 per  cent.  The  raw  clay  has  a maximum  tensile  strength 
of  72  pounds  per  square  inch,  and  the  hard-burned  brickettes  show  a 
maximum  strength  of  111  pounds  per  square  inch.  The  color  of  the 
burned  clay  is  red.  The  clay  cracks  badly  when  dried  rapidly  and  is 
deficient  in  bonding  power. 

PONTOTOC  COUNTY. 

GEOLOGY. 

Pontotoc  County  is  crossed  from  north  to  south  by  the  following 
formations,  taking  them  in  order  from  east  to  west:  Selma  chalk, 
Ripley  and  Wilcox.  The  surficial  formations  belong  to  the  Lafayette 
and  the  Columbia. 

CLAY  INDUSTRY. 

Pontotoc. — The  Columbia  clay  is  used  at  Pontotoc  in  the  manu- 
facture of  brick.  The  plant  is  operated  by  the  Austin  Brick  Manu- 
facturing Company.  The  following  is  an  analysis  of  a sample  of  the 
clay  used: 

TABLE  91. 

ANALYSIS  OF  COLUMBIA  CLAY,  PONTOTOp. 

No.  105 


Moisture  (H20) 2.13 

Volatile  matter  (C02  etc.).v 3.70 

Silicon  dioxide  (Si02) 77.57 

Iron  oxide  (Fe203> 6.25 

Aluminum  oxide  (ALO3) 7.25 

Calcium  oxide  (CaO) .50  * 

Magnesium  oxide  (MgO) 1.90 

Sulphur  trioxide  (SO3) .17 


Total 99.47 

7 


226 


CLAYS  OF  MISSISSIPPI. 


RATIONAL  ANALYSIS. 


Clay  substance 18.34 

Free  silica 69.05 

Impurities 8.82 


Clay  No.  105  has  an  absorption  of  12.96  per  cent.  Its  total 
shrinkage  is  6§  per  cent.  It  requires  15  per  cent  of  water  for  plas- 
ticity. The  tensile  strength  of  the  raw  clay  is  60  pounds  per  square 
inch,  and  of  the  burned  clay  80  pounds  per  square  inch. 

PRENTISS  COUNTY. 

GEOLOGY. 

The  Subcarbon  if  erous  forms  the  bed-rock  of  a small  part  of  the 
southeastern  portion  of  Prentiss  County.  The  Tuscaloosa  clays 
outcrop  along  the  eastern  part  of  the  county.  The  central  portion  is 
occupied  by  the  Eutaw  formation,  and  the  western  portion,  with  the 
exception  of  the  northwestern  comer,  by  the  Selma  chalk.  The 
Ripley  occupies  a small  area  west  of  the  Selma.  The  mantle  rock 
formations  are  the  residual  clays  of  these  various  bed-rocks,  the 
Lafayette  and  the  Columbia  loams.  The  clays  of  these  surface  for- 
mations are  being  used  in  the  manufacture  of  brick  and  tile  at  Boone- 
ville  and  at  Thrasher. 

CLAY  INDUSTRY. 

Booneville. — The  Booneville  Brick  and  Tile  Company  of  Booneville 
use  the  clay  from  a pit  in  which  the  following  stratigraphy  is  revealed: 

Section  of  Clay  Pit  at  Booneville. 


> Feet 

4.  Sandy  loam  (Columbia) 2-3 

3.  Reddish  clay 3-5 

2.  Bluish  clay 4 


1.  White  chalk  containing  shells 

A little  higher  up  the  clay  has  a greater  thickness,  as  the  record 
of  Mr.  H.  T.  Turkett’s  well  seems  to  indicate., 

Turkett  Well  Record , Booneville. 

Feet 


1.  Yellow  and  blue  clay 20 

2.  Blue  limestone 20 

3.  Water-bearing  sand . 5 


Plate  XXXVII 


A.  RESISTANT  LAYER  IN  THE  COLUMBIA  LOAM,  BRANDON. 


B.  LAFAYETTE  SANDS,  BRANDON  THE  RED  SAND  OF  THE  OUTCROP  WEATHERED 
WHITE  IN  THE  FLAT  BELOW. 


CLAYS  OF  NORTHERN  MISSISSIPPI. 


22? 


Clay  No.  2 of  the  pit  section  has  the  maximum  shrinkage  when 
hard  burned,  and  No.  4 the  minimum  shrinkage.  The  brick  shrink 
about  £ inch  in  length  and  £ inch  in  width.  A mixture  of  these  clays 
is  used  in  the  manufacture  of  brick  and  tile.  In  drying  the  brick, 
care  must  be  exercised  to  prevent  the  currents  of  air  from  striking 
the  brick  too  soon  after  they  are  brought  from  the  machine.  Too 
rapid  drying  at  first  causes  cracking  and  checking.  Because  of  the 
presence  of  lime  and  ironstone  concretions  in  some  parts  of  these  clays, 
care  must  also  be  exercised  in  burning  to  prevent  fusion  in  some  parts 
of  the  kiln  before  the  brick  in  the  other  parts  have  reached  the  proper 
hardness.  The  lime  acts  as  a flux  to  melt  the  iron.  This  action  runs 
the  brick  together  in  a slaggy  mass.  The  ends  of  the. eye-brick  are 
usually  glazed  by  this  reducing  action  of  the  lime.  No  granulator, 
disintegrator  or  pug  mill  is  used  in  preparing  and  tempering  the  clay. 
It  is  molded  in  a stiff-mud  side-cut  machine.  The  brick  and  tile  are 
burned  in  rectangular  up-draft  kilns  of  the  clamp  type.  The  com- 
pany also  manufactures  some  drain  tile  each  year. 

. Thrasher. — At  Thrasher,  the  Thrasher  Brick  Manufacturing  Com- 
pany opened  a yard  for  the  manufacture  of  brick  in  1906.  The  clay 
used  is  a surface  clay,  probably  of  Columbia  age.  Its  prevailing 
color  is  yellow.  The  brick  are  molded  in  a stiff-mud  machine  of  the 
plunger  type.  They  are  burned  in  rectangular  up-draft  kilns. 


RANKIN  COUNTY* 

GEOLOGY, 

The  subsurface  of  Rankin.  County  is  occupied  by  Tertiary  strata 
belonging  to  the  Jackson,  Vicksburg  and  Grand  Gulf  groups.  The 
surficial  formations  are  the  Lafayette  and  the  Columbia. 

CLAY  INDUSTRY, 

Brandon. — The  Columbia  has  been  used  at  Brandon  in  the  manu- 
facture of  brick  by  the  soft-mud  process.  One  plant  was  located 
southeast  of  town  and  another  across  from  the  Alabama  and  Vicksburg 
station,  northeast  of  town.  Neither  of  these  plants  is  in  operation 
at  present. 


228 


CLAYS  OF  MISSISSIPPI. 


On  the  siope  of  the  hill  above  the  Alabama  and  Vicksburg  station 
there  is  an  exposure  of  Lafayette  clay  which  has  the  following  com- 
position : 

TABLE  92. 

ANALYSIS  OF  COLUMBIA  CLAY,  BRANDON. 

No.  74 


Moisture  (H20) 4.89 

Volatile  matter  (C02  etc.) 4.86 

Silicon  dioxide  (Si02) 75.16 

Iron  oxide  (Fe2Oa) 5.77 

Aluminum  oxide  (ALO3) 7.75 

Calcium  oxide  (CaO) .62 

. Magnesium  oxide  (MgO) .87 

Sulphur  trioxide  (SO3) .00 

Total 99.92 

RATIONAL  ANALYSIS. 

Clay  substance 19.60 

Free  silica 66.05 

Impurities 7.26 


At  the  foot  of  the  hill,  east  of  the  station  at  Brandon,  there  is  an 
outcrop  of  white  Vicksburg  limestone.  South  of  the  station  at  a little 
higher  level  is  a marl  which  is  highly  fossiliferous.  The  section  exposed 
is  as  follows: 

Section  South  of  the  Railroad  Station , Brandon. 

Feet 


4.  Brownish  loam 5 

3.  Red  to  purple  clay 4 

2.  Yellow  clay ' 1 

1.  Marl  containing  shells 6 


Layers  2 and  3 are  residual  clays  formed  by  the  decomposition 
of  the  marl. 

In  an  abandoned  railroad  cut,  at  the  top  of  the  divide  upon  which 
Brandon  is  located,  there  is  an  outcrop  of  Lafayette  sand  capped  by 
a layer  of  light  brown  loam.  The  Lafayette,  in  places,  weathers  to 
a white  sand.  The  grains  of  sand  are  coarse  and  mostly  fragments 
of  transparent  quartz  crystals.  Some  of  the  grains  are  opaque  white. 
About  25  feet  of  this  sand  is  exposed.  Farther  west,  the  sand  has 
partings  of  white  clay  at  its  base.  Above  the  red  sand  there  is  a foot 
or  two  of  lighter  colored  transition  loam,  then  about  one  foot  of  hard, 
indurated  resistant  loam.  So  indurated  is  the  layer  that  on  an 
exposed  surface  it  projects  from  the  face  of  the  exposure,  and  when 


Plate  XXXVIII, 


B.  VICKSBURG  LIMESTONE.  NEAR  BRANDON. 


CLAYS  OF  NORTHERN  MISSISSIPPI. 


229 


broken  up  forms  a sort  of  gravel.  In  places  it  serves  as  a sort  of 
capping  to  protect  the  softer  underlying  rocks  and  thus  produces  a 
variety  of  small  tppographic  forms.  Above  the  indurated  layer  there 
is  an  exposure  of  about  4 feet  of  brown  loam  covered  by  a foot  or 
more  of  soil.  A sample  of  clay  from  the  indurated  portion  has  the 
following  chemical  composition : 

TABLE  93. 

ANALYSIS  OF  COLUMBIA  CLAY,  BRANDON. 


No.  75 

Moisture  (H20) 1.56 

Volatile  matter  (C02  etc.) 2.65 

Silicon  dioxide  (Si02) 82.32 

Iron  oxide  (Fe2Os.) 5.77 

Aluminum  oxide  (Al2Os) v 5.17 

Calcium  oxide  (CaO)  .50 

Magnesium  oxide  (MgO) .91 

Sulphur  trioxide  (SO3) .09 


Total 98.97 

RATIONAL  ANALYSIS. 

Clay  substance '.  . 13.08 

Free  silica 76.25 

Impurities 7.27 


The  cementing  substance  in  the  hard  layer  mentioned  above  is 
undoubtedly  silica.  The  amount  of  iron  and  of  calcium  carbonate 
does  not  seem  adequate  to  form  such  a degree  of  induration. 

Rankin  State  Farm. — In  an  attempt  to  find  a clay  suitable  for  the 
manufacture  of  brick  on  the  State  farm  in  Rankin  County  the  writer 
collected  a number  of  samples.  A chemical  analysis  of  one  of  these 
samples  was  made  with  the  following  results: 

TABLE  94. 

ANALYSIS  OF  CLAY,  RANKIN  COUNTY  STATE  FARM. 

* No.  71 


Moisture  (H20) .81 

Volatile  matter  (C02  etc.) 9.20 

Silicon  dioxide  (Si02) 81.72 

Iron  oxide  (Fe203) 4.81 

Aluminum  oxide  (AUO3) .86 

Calcium  oxide  (CaO) .62 

Magnesium  oxide  (MgO) .89 

Sulphur  trioxide  (SO3) .36 


Total 99.27 

RATIONAL  ANALYSIS. 

Clay  substance 2.17 

Free  silica 80.71 

Impurities 6.58 


230 


CLAYS  OF  MISSISSIPPI. 


The  absorption  of  clay  No.  71  is  14.94  per  cent.  It  contained  such 
a small  amount  of  clay  substance  that  it  was  deficient  in  bonding 
power.  It  is  about  four-fifths  sand  and  contains  more  than  6 per 
cent  of  fluxing  impurities. 


SCOTT  COUNTY. 

GEOLOGY. 

The  substrata  of  Scott  County  belong  to  the  Claiborne,  Jackson 
and  Vicksburg.  The  Lafayette  and  Columbia  form  the  surficial  for- 
mations. There  are  also  some  .residual  clays  formed  from  the  Jackson 
marls. 

CLAY  INDUSTRY. 

Forest. — At  Forest,  a residual  Jackson  clay  outcrops  in  a small 
ravine  in  the  western  part  of  the  town.  The  analysis  of  this  clay  is 
given  in  No.  113,  below: 


TABLE  95. 


ANALYSES  OF  CLAYS,  FOREST 

No.  113  No.  112 


Moisture  (H20) 

Volatile  matter  (C02  etc.) 

Silicon  dioxide  (Si02) 

Iron  oxide  (Fe2Os) 

Aluminum  oxide  (ALO3) . 

Calcium  oxide  (CaO) 

Magnesium  oxide  (MgO) . . 
Sulphur  trioxide  (SO3) . . . . 


5.05  1.80 

6.41  2.48 

69.01  86.38 

8.02  2.82 

5.60  1.23 

2.50  4.17 

.48  .27 

.51  .02 


Total 


98.58  99.17 


RATIONAL  ANALYSIS. 


Clay  substance 

Free  silica 

Impurities 


20.29  3.11 
56.74  84.50 
10.19  7.28 


A sample  of  clay  taken  from  a railroad  cut  near  the  station  belongs 
to  a surface  loam.  The  deposit  contains  some  pebbles  at  the  base 
and  the  clay  has  some  small  gravels.  It  is  probably  Lafayette  or 
Columbia.  The  composition  of  a sample  is  given  in  No.  112  of  the 
above  table.  The  burned  brickettes  have  an  absorption  of  9.02  per 
cent. 


Plate  XXXIX. 


B.  LOCAL  FAULT  IN  THE  JACKSON  STRATA,  MORTON. 


CLAYS  OF  NORTHERN  MISSISSIPPI. 


231 


Morton. — In  the  southern  part  of  the  town  of  Morton  there  is 
an  outcrop  of  Jackson  which  has  the  following  stratigraphy  (see 
Plate  XXXIX,  A): 

Section  of  the  Jackson,  Morton. 

• Feet 


3.  Grayish  clay  in  thin  layers 5 

2.  Lignite  and  lignitic  clay 6 

1.  White  sand,  cross  bedded  with  clay  partings 15 


In  another  outcrop  southeast  of  the  above  mentioned  point,  there 
are  exposed  about  6 feet  of  grayish  sticky  clay  which  has  resting 
upon  it  an  alternating  bed  of  clay  and  sand  with  a thickness  of  20 
feet.  At  one  place  in  this  outcrop  a fault  having  a throw  of  4 feet  is 
visible.  (See  Plate  XXXIX,  B.)  The  grayish  clay  has  the  following 
chemical  composition: 

TABLE  96. 

ANALYSIS  OF  JACKSON  CLAY,  MORTON. 


No.  90 

Moisture  (H20) 7.35 

Volatile  matter  (C02  etc.) 10.12 

Silicon  dioxide  (Si02) 61.82 

Iron  oxide  (Fe2Os) v 2.80 

Aluminum  oxide  (A12Os) 12.28 

Calcium  oxide  (CaO) .82 

Magnesium  oxide  (MgO) .54 

Sulphur  trioxide  (SO3) .04 


Total 95.77 


RATIONAL  ANALYSIS. 


Clay  substance 31.06 

Free  silica 43.04 

Impurities 4.20 


Clay  No.  90  requires  22  per  cent  of  water  for  plasticity;  has  a 
tensile  strength,  raw,  of  81  pounds  per  square  inch;  burned,  131 
pounds  per  square  inch ; has  a total  shrinkage  of  10  per  cent ; and  has 
an  absorption  of  11.11  per  cent.  Mixed  with  10  per  cent  coal  it  has 
a total  shrinkage  of  7 per  cent;  has  a tensile  strength,  raw,  of  100 
pounds;  and  has  a tensile  strength,  burned,  of  233  pounds  per  square 
inch.  When  mixed  with  10  per  cent  cinders  its  total  shrinkage  is 
7 per  cent;  its  tensile  strength,  raw,  is  100  pounds,  and  burned  is 
235  pounds  per  square  inch. 


232 


CLAYS  OF  MISSISSIPPI. 


SUNFLOWER  COUNTY* 

GEOLOGY* 

Sunflower  County  lies  within  the  Yazoo  basin  and  its  entire  sur- 
face formation  is  alluvium.  Sandy  loams  and  stiff  black  clays  form 
the  surface.  Underlying  the  alluvial  deposit  are  the  clays,  sands  and 
sandstones  of  the  Claiborne  and  Wilcox. 

CLAY  INDUSTRY. 

Indianola. — The  alluvial  clays  are  being  used  at  Indianola  in  the 
manufacture  of  brick.  Two  plants  are  in  operation  at  this  point ; 
both  of  them  use  the  dry -press  process  of  manufacture. 

In  the  pit  used  by  the  Indianola  Brick  a*nd  Tile  Company  the  follow- 
ing strata  are  exposed: 

Section  of  Clay  Pit , Indianola. 

Feet 

3.  Yellowish  loam % 3 

2.  Dark  colored  clay  (buckshot) 2 

1.  Yellowish  clay 6 

A sample  of  No.  1 was  taken  for  analysis  with  the  following  result: 

TABLE  97* 

ANALYSIS  OF  ALLUVIAL  CLAY  INDIANOLA. 

No.  54 

Moisture  (H20) . . . . . 5.00 

Volatile  matter  (C02  etc.) 7.57 

Silicon  dioxide  (Si02) * . . 60.00 

Iron  oxide  (Fe203) . 4.62 

Aluminum  oxide  (A1203) 20.00 

Calcium  oxide  (CaO) .80 

Magnesium  oxide  (MgO) .47 

Sulphur  trioxide  (S03) .85 

Total 99.31 

RATIONAL  ANALYSIS. 

Clay  substance 50.60 

Free  silica 36.48 

Impurities 6.74 

Clay  No.  54  requires  20  per  cent  of  water  to  render  it  plastic.  It 
loses  13  per  cent  in  weight  in  burning.  In  the  raw  state  its  tensile 
strength  is  262  pounds.  The  burned  brickettes  have  a strength  of 


CLAYS  OF  NORTHERN  MISSISSIPPI, 


233 


390  pounds.  It  bums  to  a red  color  but  fuses  at  a moderately  low 
temperature.  Great  care  must  be  exercised  in  drying  and  burning 
to  prevent  cracking  and  swelling.  The  stratum  is  not  used  alone  but 
is  mixed  with  the  overlying  leaner  clay,  and  more  satisfactory  results 
are  obtained.  The  effect  of  the  top  clay  is  to  facilitate  drying  and 
lessen  shrinkage.  When  burned  hard  the  center  of  the  bricks  are 
steel  blue  in  color.  The  hard-burned  bricks  have  a water  absorption 
of  9.3  per  cent. 

The  Sunflower  Brick  Manufacturing  Company  also  operates  a 
plant  at  Indianola.  The  plant  is  located  on  the  line  of  the  Southern 
Railway,  west  of  town.  The  pit  as  far  as  opened  at  the  time  of  the 
visit  of  the  writer  exhibited  the  following: 

Section  of  Clay  Pit , Indianola. 

Feet 


2.  Light  grayish,  loamy  clay 3 

1.  Dark  colored  clay 6 


Samples  of  clay  were  taken  from  both  of  these  layers.  The 
analyses  are  given  below.  Analysis  No.  52  was  made  from  layer  No.  1 
and  NO.  53  from  layer  No.  2. 


TABLE  98. 


ANALYSES  OF  BRICK  CLAYS,  INDIANOLA. 

No.  52 


Moisture  (H20) 7.27 

Volatile  matter  (C02  etc.) 2.40 

Silicon  dioxide  (Si02) 71.17 

Iron  oxide  (Fe203) 6.04 

Aluminum  oxide  (A1203) 10.06 

Calcium  oxide  (CaO) 1.00 

Magnesium  oxide  (MgO) 1.16 

Sulphur  trioxide  (S03) .48 


No.  53 
2.15 
4.85 
71.67 
7.90 
8.10 
.90 
.94 
.62 


Total 


99.58  97.13 


RATIONAL  ANALYSIS. 


Clay  substance 25.47 

Free  silica 11.83 

Impurities 8.68 


20.49 

62.15 

10.36 


Brickettes  of  clay  No.  52  lose  14  per  cent  in  weight  in  being  burned. 
The  clay  becomes  plastic  when  mixed  with  22  per  cent  of  water. 
It  has  a total  shrinkage  of  10  per  cent.  The  tensile  strength  of  the 
raw  clay  is  300  pounds. 


234 


CLAYS  OF  MISSISSIPPI. 


Clay  No.  53  is  rendered  plastic  by  the  addition  of  20  per  cent  of 
water.  The  air  shrinkage  is  about  5 per  cent.  The  tensile  strength 
of  the  raw  clay  is  100  pounds.  The  burned  brickettes  have  a strength 
of  300  pounds  per  square  inch. 

Moorhead. — A sample  of  alluvium  clay  of  the  plastic  “buckshot” 
type  was  collected  near  the  plant  of  the  Moorhead  Manufacturing  Com- 
pany at  Moorhead.  The  clay  is  bluish  black  in  color  and  of  very  fine 
grain.  The  amount  of  water  required  to  render  it  plastic  is  25.89 
per  cent.  In  the  raw  state  the  clay  has  a tensile  strength  of  142 
pounds.  When  burned  hard  it  has  a strength  of  840  pounds.  The 
total  amount  of  shrinkage  is  15  per  cent.  The  chemical  composition 
is  given  below: 

TABLE  99. 

ANALYSIS  OF  BUCKSHOT  CLAY,  MOORHEAD. 

No.  115 


Moisture  (H20) 7.20 

Volatile  matter  (C02  etc.) 8.00 

Silicon  dioxide  (Si02) 58.16 

Iron  oxide  (Fe2Os) 4.95 

Aluminum  oxide  (A120 3) 17.25 

Calcium  oxide  (CaO) 3.22 

Magnesium  oxide  (MgO) .27 

Sulphur  trioxide  (S03) .27 


Total 99.32 

RATIONAL  ANALYSIS. 

Clay  substance 43.64 

Free  silica 31.77 

Impurities 8.71 


TATE  COUNTY. 

GEOLOGY. 

The  entire  subsurface  of  Tate  County  is  the  Wilcox  (Lagrange) 
division  of  the  Tertiary.  The  mantle-rock  formations  are  the  La- 
fayette, the  Loess,  the  Columbia  and  the  Yazoo  alluvium.  The  last 
two  are  the  sources  of  the  brick  material. 

CLAY  INDUSTRY. 

Senatobia. — The  brown  loam  clay  is  used  at  Senatobia  in  the  man- 
ufacture of  brick.  T.  B.  Montgomery  and  Son  operate  a plant  at 
this  point.  The  plant  was  established  in  1900.  The  clay  is  tern- 


CLAYS  OF  NORTHERN  MISSISSIPPI.  235 

pered  in  soak  pits  and  molded  in  a soft-mud  machine  operated  by 
horse  power.  The  brick  are  placed  upon  pallets  and  racked  in  cov- 
ered racks  for  drying.  They  are  burned  in  up-draft  kilns  of  the  rec- 
tangular form.  The  local  stratigraphy  is  disclosed  by  the  well  record 


at  the  plant: 

Record  of  Montgomery  Well. 

Thickness  Depth 
Feet  Feet 

4.  Brown  loam  (Columbia) 12  12 

3.  Gravel  (brown  and  white  chert,  Lafayette)  3 15 

2.  Red  sandy  clay 8 23  ' 

1.  White  sand,  water-bearing 17  40 


The  brown  loam  and  the  underlying  clay  of  the  Columbia  are 
well  developed  in  Tate  County.  With  the  proper  selection  and  mixing 
of  the  loam  and  clay  a good  quality  of  brick  may  be  obtained. 

TIPPAH  COUNTY* 

GEOLOGY. 

The  Ripley  formation  comprises  the  bed-rock  of  the  eastern  part 
of  Tippah  County,  while  the  western  part  is  underlain  by  the  basal 
division  of  the  Eocene.  The  mantle  rock  formations  are  the  Lafay- 
ette sands  and  clays  and  the  brown  loam  of  the  Columbia.  The  latter 
forms  the  chief  source  of  brick  clay  under  the  present  development. 

CLAY  INDUSTRY. 

Ripley. — At  Ripley  the  Ripley  Brick  Manufacturing  Company 
uses  a surface  clay  from  the  Columbia  in  the  manufacture  of  brick. 
The  stiff -mud,  end-cut  machine  of  the  auger  type  is  used.  The  brick 
are  burned  in  rectangular  up-draft  kilns.  From  the  clay  pit  and  the 
well  at  the  brick  yard  the  following  local  stratigraphic  conditions 


were  determined:. 

Section  of  Clay  Pit , Ripley.  Feet 

5.  Soil 1 

4.  Loam 2 

3.  Brownish  clay  with  buckshot  at  bottom 10 

2.  Sand  (water-bearing) 1 

1.  Limestone  with  shells 2 


All  of  the  layers  above  No.  1 belong  to  the  mantle  rock, 
belongs  to  the  bed  rock. 


No.  1 


236 


CLAYS  OF  MISSISSIPPI. 


A sample  of  clay  from  No.  3 has  the  following  chemical  properties 

TABLE  100. 


ANALYSIS  OF  BRICK  CLAY,  RIPLEY.  No.  110 

Moisture  (H20; 2.85 

Volatile  matter  (C02  etc.) 2.80 

Silicon  dioxide  (Si02) 82.20 

Iron  oxide  (Fe2Os) 4.62 

Aluminum  oxide  (Al203) 6.24 

Calcium  oxide  (CaO) . 1.05 

Magnesium  oxide  (MgO) .90 

Sulphur  trioxide  (SO3) .04 


Total 100.20 

RATIONAL  ANALYSIS. 

Clay  substance 15.78 

Free  silica 74.87 

Impurities 6.61 


The  above  mentioned  clay  requires  17  per  cent  of  water  to  render 
it  plastic.  Its  total  shrinkage  is  6 per  cent.  The  tensile  strength  of 
the  raw  brickettes  is  168  pounds  per  square  inch.  When  soft  burned 
the  strength  is  135  pounds  per  square  inch.  Air  dried  brick  lose  2 
per  cent  in  weight  in  being' dried  at  10U°  F.  and  5 per  cent  more  in 
burning. 

TUNICA  COUNTY. 

GEOLOGY. 

Tunica  County  lies  wholly  within  the  Yazoo  basin.  Its  surficial 
formation  is  the  Post-Pleistocene  alluvium.  The  bed  rock  formation 
probably  belongs  wholly  to  the  Wilcox. 

CLAY  INDUSTRY. 

Robins onville . — The  clays  of  the  alluvial  deposit  are  used  at  Rob- 
insonville  in  the  manufacture  of  brick  and  drain  tile.  The  brick  are 
molded  in  a machine  of  the  stiff -mud  type,  and  burned  in  a beehive 
kiln. 

There  are  two  principal  types  of  the  Yazoo  alluvium  in  Tunica 
County.  The  sandy  type,  which  is  found  near  the  streams,  and  the 
clayey  interstream-area  type.  Because  of  the  shifting  of  the  streams  or 
of  temporary  currents  across  the  Yazoo  basin  during  the  building  of 
the  flood  plain,  both  of  these  types  may  be  found  at  the  same  place 
succeeding  each  other  every  few  feet  in  a vertical  section.  These 
two  types  arejmixed  in  the  manufacture  of  brick  and  drain  tile. 


CLAYS  OF  NORTHERN  MISSISSIPPI. 


237 


UNION  COUNTY. 

GEOLOGY. 

The  bed-rock  formations  of  Union  County  are  the  Selma  chalk 
and  the  Ripley  in  the  eastern  part,  and  the  Wilcox  in  the  western 
part.  The  mantle  rock  formations  are  the  Lafayette  and  the  Colum- 
bia. Pontotoc  Ridge,  which  crosses  the  county  from  north  to  south 
about  the  central  portion,  exhibits  the  best  development  of  the 
Lafayette.  Clays  from  both  the  surficial  formations  are  used  in  the 
manufacture  of  brick  in  this  county. 

CLAY  INDUSTRY. 

New  Albany. — Two  brick  manufacturing  plants  are  located  at 
New  Albany.  The  Butler  Brick  Manufacturing  Company  has  a. 
clay  pit  on  the  west  side  of  a small  ridge  extending  south  of  New 
Albany.  The  clay  on  the  ridge  is  probably  Lafayette,  though  the 
lower  portion  may  be  residual  Ripley.  The  brick  yard  well  pierced 
about  20  feet  of  this  clay.  The  slopes  of  the  Lafayette  are  covered 
with  a mantle  of  brown  loam,  which  increases  in  thickness  toward  the 
valley.  The  red-colored  Lafayette  clay  is  too  sticky  to  be  used  in 
the  soft-mud  process  of  brick  making.  A sample  of  the  Lafayette 
clay  has  the  following  chemical  properties: 

TABLE  101. 

ANALYSIS  OF  LAFAYETTE  CLAY,  NEW  ALBANY. 


No.  109 

Moisture  (H20) . 2.27 

Volatile  matter  (C02  etc.) 2.77 

Silicon  dioxide  (Si02) 80.13 

Iron  oxide  (Fe202) 4.62 

Aluminum  oxide  (Al2Os) 9.00 

Calcium  oxide  (CaO) .25 

Magnesium  oxide  (MgO) .14 

Sulphur  trioxide  (S03) .09 


Total 99.27 

RATIONAL  ANALYSIS. 

Clay  substance 22.77 

Free  silica 69.55 

Impurities 5.10 


The  physical  properties  of  clay  No.  109  are  as  follows:  It  requires 
17  per  cent  of  water  for  plasticity.  It  has  a total  shrinkage  of  5 per 
cent.  Its  tensile  strength,  raw,  is  50  pounds  per  square  inch. 


238 


CLAYS  OF  MISSISSIPPI. 


The  brown  clay  of  the  slope  has  been  used  by  the  above  mentioned 
company  in  the  manufacture  of  brick.  The  composition  of  this  clay 
is  given  below: 


TABLE  102. 

ANALYSIS  OF  BRICK  CLAY,  NEW  ALBANY. 


Moisture  (H20) 

Volatile  matter  (C02  etc.) 

Silicon  dioxide  (Si02)' 

Iron  oxide  (Fe2Os) 

Aluminum  oxide  (Al2Os) . 

Calcium  oxide  (CaO) 

Magnesium  oxide  (MgO) . . 
Sulphur  trioxide  (SO3) 


No.  108 
1.05 
2.85 
85.24 
3.50 
.71 
3.69 
2.00 
.86 


Total 


99.90 


RATIONAL  ANALYSIS. 

Clay  substance 

Free  silica 

Impurities 


1.79 

84.41 

10.05 


Clay  No.  108  requires  16  per  cent  of  water  for  plasticity;  has  a 
shrinkage  of  2 per  cent,  and  has  a tensile  strength,  raw,  of  50  pounds. 

A clay  from  a small  valley  is  now  being  used  at  the  Butler  Brick 
Plant.  The  clay  is  prepared  by  the  use  of  a disintegrator  and  granu- 
lator. It  is  tempered  in  a pug  mill  and  molded  in  a soft-mud  machine 
operated  by  steam  power.  The  brick  are  burned  in  rectangular  up- 
draft kilns  of  the  clamp  type.  A sample  of  clay  from  the  valley  has 
the  composition  given  below: 


TABLE  103. 

ANALYSIS  OF  BRICK  CLAY,  NEW  ALBANY. 

No.  106 


Moisture  (H20) 1.10 

Volatile  matter  (C02  etc.) 2.67 

Silicon  dioxide  (Si02) 85.29 

Iron  oxide  (Fe203) 3.44 

Aluminum  oxide  (Al2Os) 4.44 

Calcium  oxide  (CaO) .44 

Magnesium  oxide  (MgO) .09 

Sulphur  trioxide  (SO3) .17 


Total 97.64 


RATIONAL  ANALYSIS. 


Clay  substance 11.23 

Free  silica 80.07 

Impurities 4.14 


Plate  XL, 


A.  VICKSBURG  LIMESTONE,  VICKSBURG,  DISTANT  VIEW. 


B.  VICKSBURG  LIMESTONE,  VICKSBURG,  NEAR  VIEW. 


CLAYS  OP  NORTHERN  MISSISSIPPI. 


239 


The  physical  properties  of  clay  No.  106  are:  Water  required  for 
plasticity,  16  per  cent;  air  shrinkage,  1 per  cent;  fire  shrinkage,  1 
per  cent  or  less;  tensile  strength,  raw,  65  pounds  per  square  inch. 

The  Union  County  Brick  and  Tile  Company  has  a plant  a short 
distance  south  of  the  Butler  yard.  The  clay  in  its  pit  has  a thickness 
of  10  feet.  The  upper  part  is  a brown  loam  clay,  and  the  lower  portion 
is  red  Lafayette.  The  top  clay  cannot  be  used  alone  in  the  manu- 
facture of  dry -pressed  brick.  The  best  results  are  obtained  by  using 
the  bottom  clay.  A sample  of  the  red  clay  has  the  composition  given 
below : 

TABLE!  1 04. 

ANALYSIS  OF  LAFAYETTE  CLAY.  NEW  ALBANY. 


No.  107 

Moisture  (H20) 2.55 

Volatile  matter  (C02  etc.) 4.05 

Silicon  dioxide  (Si02) 77.99 

Iron  oxide  (Fe2Os) 6.25 

Aluminum  oxide  (Al203) 8.37 

Calcium  oxide  (CaO) .06 

Magnesium  oxide  (MgO) .27 

Sulphur  trioxide  (SO3) .51 


Total 100.05 

RATIONAL  ANALYSIS.  . 

Clay  substance 21.17 

Free  silica 68.15 

Impurities 7.09 


Clay  No.  107  has  an  absorption  of  13.79  per  cent;  requires  18  per 
cent  of  water  for  plasticity;  has  a total  shrinkage  of  3J  per  cent; 
has  a tensile  strength,  raw,  of  60  pounds  per  square  inch,  and  burned 
of  50  pounds. 


WARREN  COUNTY. 

GEOLOGY. 

The  bed  rock  formations  of  Warren  County  belong  to  the  Vicks- 
burg, Jackson  and  Grand  Gulf  stages  of  the  Tertiary  period.  In  the 
bluffs  near  the  Mississippi  and  Yazoo  Rivers  in  this  county  there  are 
numerous  exposures  of  Vicksburg  limestone.  Such  outcrops  are  found 
both  north  and  south  of  the  city  of  Vicksburg.  The  road  leading 
north  from  Vicksburg  to  the  National  Military  Cemetery  passes  along 
the  foot  of  the  bluff,  the  lower  portion  of  which  is  formed  by  an 


240 


CLAYS  OF  MISSISSIPPI. 


almost  unbroken  wall  of  Vicksburg  limestone.  (See  Plate  XL VI I.) 
The  limestone  consists  of  5 to  6 layers,  which  are  interbedded  with 
marl.  The  limestone  beds  vary  in  thickness  from  1 to  6 feet.  A 
dark  laminated  clay  or  marl  is  exposed  in  a creek  bed  about  20  feet 
below  these  limestones.  At  a point  where  the  cemetery  road  ap- 
proaches the  nearest  point  to  Finnie  Lake,  the  outcrop  of  limestone 
is  capped  with  30  feet  or  more  of  shell  marl.  The  shells  are  very 
abundant.  The  upper  portion  of  the  marl  contains  lens-like  clay 
stones  which  are  brown  on  weathered  surfaces  and  purple  on  fresh 
fractures.  The  surfaces  of  these  stones  are  generally  channelled  and 
irregular.  The  marl  contains  some  ironstone  concretions  of  irregular 
shape.  The  freshly  exposed  marl  is  bluish  gray  in  color.  Under  the 
action  of  the  weathering  agents  it  changes  first  to  dark  red  or  purple 
and  finally  to  yellow. 

The  upper  part  of  the  bluff  is  capped  by  20  feet  or  more  of  Loess. 
In  other  places  it  is  thicker.  Resting  upon  the  Loess  at  Vicksburg 
there  is  a brownish  colored  clay  which  is  used  in  the  manufacture  of 
brick.  This  clay  is  probably  a residual  product  resulting  from  the 
decomposition  of  the  Loess. 

CLAY  INDUSTRY. 

Vicksburg. — The  J.  D.  Tanner  Brick  Manufacturing  plant  was 
established  about  1880.  The  brick  are  manufactured  by  the  soft- 
mud  process,  being  molded  by  hand.  The  clay  is  tempered  in  a ring 
pit.  The  brick  are  burned  in  rectangular  up-draft  kilns. 

The  clay  pit,  which  is  located  on  a hill,  has  the  following  strati- 
graphy, the  divisions  not  being  very  clearly  defined: 


Section  at  Tanner  Brick  Plant , Vicksburg.  Feet 

4.  Soil 1 

3.  Loamy  clay,  grading  into  2 2 

2.  More  plastic  clay 4 

1 . Loess 2 + 


No.  1 has  a thickness  of  50  feet  or  more  in  some  places.  It  lacks 
plasticity  and  is  not  used  by  itself  in  the  manufacture  of  brick.  The 
remainder  of  the  section  seems  to  be  the  residual  product,  resulting 
from  the  weathering  of  the  Loess.  While  retaining  some  of  its  physical 
characters,  it  has  lost  much  of  its  soluble  matter.  Especially  has  the 
amount  of  calcareous  matter  been  greatly  reduced.  The  lime  con- 


Plate  XLI. 


EROSION  IN  BROWN  LOAM  AND  LOESS,  NATIONAL  PARK,  VICKSBURG 


CLAYS  OP  NORTHERN  MISSISSIPPI. 


241 


cretions  and  the  gastropod  shells,  so  characteristic  of  the  Loess,  have 
disappeared.  There  is  a decided  gain  in  clay  substances,  conse- 
quently a gain  in  plasticity.  The  joint  structure  has  been  developed. 

In  the  manufacture  of  soft-mud  brick  at  the  Tanner  plant  it  is 
not  possible  to  use  the  more  plastic  clay  alone,  so  it  is  mixed  with  the 
Loess  in  the  proportion  of  1 foot  of  the  latter  to  5 feet  of  the  former. 
Some  of  the  physical  properties  of  the  clay  are  as  follows:  Its  total 
shrinkage  is  only  3 per  cent,  practically  all  of  which  is  air  shrinkage. 
The  raw  clay  has  a tensile  strength  of  66  pounds  per  square  inch. 
The  burned  brickettes  have  a tensile  strength  of  144  pounds  per 
square  inch.  The  addition  of  23  per  cent  of  water  is  necessary  for 
plasticity.  The  loss  of  weight  in  passing  from  an  air  dried  to  a burned 
condition  is  4 per  cent.  The  burned  brickettes  absorb  12  per  cent  of 
water. 

The  Gregory  Brick  Manufacturing  plant,  established  in  1906,  is 
located  in  the  southern  part  of  Vicksburg.  The  clay  used  is  taken 
from  a pit  on  the  side  of  a small  depression  near  the  plant.  The  clay 
changes  from  the  surface  downward  from  a sandy  loam  to  a plastic 
joint  clay.  The  Loess  lies  below  the  clay.  It  contains  white  lime 
concretions  of  irregular  shapes,  somewhat  resembling  potatoes  with 
their  protuberances.  White  gastropod  shells  are  also  abundant  in 
the  Loess.  The  clay  is  tempered  in  a ring  pit  and  molded  by  hand. 
The  brick  are  burned  in  rectangular  up-draft  kilns. 

The  Beck  Brick  Manufacturing  plant  is  located  on  one  of  the 
Loess  ridges  in  the  southeastern  part  of  Vicksburg.  The  plant  was 
established  in  1889.  They  use  clay  and  loess  in  the  proportion  of  1 
part  of  loess  to  5 parts  of  clay.  The  treatment  of  the  clay  is  similar 
to  that  of  the  other  plants.  It  is  tempered  in  the  ring  pit  and  molded 
by  hand.  After  being  dried  in  the  open  yard,  the  brick  are  burned 
in  rectangular  up-draft  kilns. 

The  Garbish  Brick  Manufacturing  Company  operates  a plant  in 
the  northern  part  of  Vicksburg.  The  residual  Loess  clay  is  carted 
from  the  hill  which  rises  above  the  low  ground  next  to  the  river. 
The  clay  is  mixed  with  the  Loess  in  the  proportion  of  12  loads  of  clay 
to  3 loads  of  Loess. 

The  Thornton  Press  Brick  Company  operated  a plant  at  Vicks- 
burg until  1905,  when  the  plant  was  burned.  The  residual  Loess 
clay  was  used  in  the  manufacture  of  dry-pressed  brick. 


242 


CLAYS  OF  MISSISSIPPI. 


WASHINGTON  COUNTY, 

GEOLOGY, 

Washington  County  lies  wholly  within  the  Mississippi  flood  plain 
in  the  Yazoo  delta.  Its  surface  is  occupied  by  the  alluvium  deposited 
during  overflows  from  the  river.  The  surficial  material  is  of  two 
types,  viz.,  the  sandy  loams,  so  well  represented  on  the  borders  of 
Deer  Creek,  and  the  dark  “buckshot”  clays,  well  developed  in  the 
Black  Bayou  region. 

CLAY  INDUSTRY, 

Elizabeth. — A sample  of  clay  collected  from  near  the  station  at 
Elizabeth  in  Washington  County  has  the  following  chemical  com- 


position : 

TABLE  105. 

ANALYSIS  OF  CLAY.  ELIZABETH.  No.  58 

Moisture  (H20) ^ 3.06 

Volatile  matter  (C02  etc.) 3.94 

Silicon  dioxide  (Si02) 69.22 

Iron  oxide  (Fe203) 5.90 

Aluminum  oxide  (Al203) 13.35 

Calcium  oxide  (CaO) 2.75 

Magnesium  oxide  (MgO) 1.15 

Sulphur  trioxide  (SO3) .48 


Total 99.85 

RATIONAL  ANALYSIS. 

Clay  substance 33.77 

Free  silica 53.53 

Impurities 10.28 


The  physical  properties  of  the  clay,  so  far  as  determined,  are  as 
follows:  It  has  a total  shrinkage  of  5 per  cent  when  burned  to  a hard 
state.  It  requires  19  per  cent  of  water  to  render  it  plastic.  The 
brickettes  lose  10  per  cent  in  weight  in  burning.  They  bum  to  a 
cherry  red  and  are  without  cracks  or  checks.  The  tensile  strength 
of  the  raw  clay  is  200  pounds  per  square  inch.  The  burned  brickettes 
have  an  absorption  of  14  per  cent.  The  clay  is  of  fine  grain  and  does 
not  contain  any  gravel  or  large  particles.  A sandy  type  and -a  fat 
type  are  found  within  a short  distance  of  each  other,  and  are  thus 
accessible  for  mixing.  The  railroad  facilities  at  Elizabeth  are  excel- 
lent. This  point  is  worthy  of  the  investigation  of  those  desiring  to 
engage  in  the  manufacture  of  brick  and  drain  tile. 

Greenville. — At  Greenville  the  alluvial  clay  has  been  used  in  the 
manufacture  of  brick  by  the  Greenville  Dry  Press  Brick  Company. 


Plate  XLII. 


TYPICAL  LOESS  TOPOGRAPHY,  VICKSBURG. 


CLAYS  OF  NORTHERN  MISSISSIPPI. 


243 


The  clay  is  of  a dark  color  and  belongs  to  the  “buckshot”  type.  The 
brick  are  molded  in  a dry-press  machine  and  burned  in  up-draft 
clamp  kilns.  A sample  of  clay  from  this  pit  has  the  following  chem- 
ical composition : 

TABLE  106, 

ANALYSIS  OF  ALLUVIAL  CLAY,  GREENVILLE. 

No.  49 


Moisture  (H20) 4.21 

Volatile  matter  (C02  etc.) 11.78 

Silicon  dioxide 58.82 

Iron  oxide  (Fe203) 11.30 

Aluminum  oxide  (A1203) 9.70 

Calcium  oxide 1.40 

Magnesium  oxide  (MgO) 2.01 

Sulphur  trioxide  (S03) > .50 


Total 98.72 

RATIONAL  ANALYSIS. 

Clay  substance 24.54 

Free  silica 47.42 

Impurities 15.21 


The  burned  brickettes  have  an  absorption  of  11.11  per  cent.  The 
clay  slacks  slowly.  When  stirred  wet  it  forms  hard  clods.  The  clay 
requires  19  per  cent  of  water  to  render  it  plastic.  It  has  a total 
shrinkage  of  10  per  cent.  In  the  raw  state  its  brickettes  have  a ten- 
sile strength  of  190  pounds  per  square  inch  When  burned  hard  they 
are  red  in  color  and  have  a tensile  strength  of  632  pounds.  In  the 
process  of  granulation  the  clay  may  be  reduced  to  spherical  grains, 
which  in  the  molding  process  are  not  entirely  obliterated.  Under 
such  conditions  the  soft -burned  brick  may  crumble.  When  the  brick 
are  hard-burned  the  grains  are  destroyed.  Great  care  must  be  exer- 
cised in  burning  the  clay  at  high  temperature  to  avoid  swelling  and 
cracking. 

Hampton. — A sample  of  alluvial  clay  collected  from  near  the 
station  at  Hampton  belongs  to  the  sandy  loam  type  and  has  the  fol- 
lowing physical  properties:  The  total  shrinkage  is  about  3 per  cent. 
Its  tensile  strength,  raw,  is  53  pounds,  and  when  burned  it  has  a 
strength  of  116  pounds.  It  requires  19.1  per  cent  of  water  to  render 
it  plastic.  The  clay  loses  26  per  cent  of  its  weight  in  drying  and 
burning,  7 per  cent  being  lost  between  the  air-dried  and  the  burnt 
states.  This  sample  was  taken  about  1 foot  below  the  surface. 
Another  sample  taken  from  a lower  level  has  a total  shrinkage  of  4 


244 


CLAYS  OF  MISSISSIPPI. 


per  cent.  Its  loss  of  weight  in  drying  and  burning  is  24  per  cent. 
Its  absorption  is  14.81  per  cent.  In  the  raw  state  it  has  a tensile 
strength  of  180  pounds  per  square  inch,  and  when  soft-burned  its 
strength  is  only  110  pounds.  In  grain  it  is  coarse,  but  does  not  con- 
tain any  loose  particles. 

WEBSTER  COUNTY. 

GEOLOGY. 

Webster  County  lies  wholly  within  the  borders  of  the  Wilcox 
(Lagrange)  division  of  the  Tertiary.  The  formation  consists  of  clays 
and  unconsolidated  sands  with  intercalated  beds  of  lignite.  Many 
good  pottery  clays  occur  in  the  formation.  A small  hand  pottery  at 
Cumberland  manufactures  a general  line  of  stoneware.  One  of  the 
clays  from  this  formation  is  used  at  Maben  in  the  manufacture  of 
white  brick.  The  surface  formations  of  the  county  consist  of  the 
sands  and  clays  of  the  Lafayette  and  the  loams  of  the  Columbia. 

The  analysis  of  the  white  clay  used  at  Maben  in  the  manufacture 
of  white  brick  may  be  seen  on  page  212. 


WINSTON  COUNTY. 

GEOLOGY. 

Winston  County  lies  mainly  within  the  Wilcox-Eocene,  though 
there  is  a small  area  of  Tallahatta  buhrstone  in  the  southwestern 
comer.  The  surficial  deposits  are  of  Lafayette  and  Columbia  age. 
The  Wilcox  (Lagrange)  contains  some  good  beds  of  white  pottery 
clays.  It  also  contains  beds  of  lignite.  The  chemical  composition 
of  one  of  the  white  pottery  clays  from  the  J.  A.  M.  Loyd  pottery  pit 
near  Webster  is  given  below: 


TABLE  107. 


ANALYSIS  OF  POTTERY  CLAY  NEAR  WEBSTER. 

No.  68a 


Moisture  (H20) 

Volatile  matter  (C02  etc.) 

Silicon  dioxide  (Si02) 

Aluminum  oxide  (Al2Os). 

Iron  oxide  (Fe2Oa) 

Calcium  oxide  (CaO) 

Magnesium  oxide  (MgO) . . 
Sulphur  trioxide  (SO3) 


.47 

9.24 

59.82 

27.19 

1.26 

.49 

.37 

.31 


Total 


99.15 


CLAYS  OF  NORTHERN  MISSISSIPPI. 


245 


RATIONAL  ANALYSIS. 


Clay  base 68.90 

Free  silica 18.11 

Fluxing  impurities 2.12 


CLAY  INDUSTRY* 

Louisville. — The  surface  clays  are  used  at  Louisville  in  the  manu- 
facture of  brick  by  two  companies.  The  Storer  and  Miller  Company 
have  a yard  located  north  of  town  on  the  line  of  the  Mobile,  Jackson 
and  Kansas  City  Railroad.  The  clay  used  is  a red  clay,  probably  of 
Lafayette  age.  The  upper  portion  is  sandy.  There  seems  to  be 
about  6 feet  of  residual  clay  with  a red  and  white  clay  below.  The 
clay  at  this  point  is  prepared  in  a disintegrator  and  granulator,  and 
tempered  in  a pug  mill.  It  is  molded  in  an  end-cut  stiff -mud  machine. 
The  brick  are  dried  in  covered  racks  and  burned  in  up-draft  kilns. 

Langley  Brothers  operate  a brick  plant  south  of  Louisville.  The 
clay  used  is  a surface  loam  which  is  mixed  with  a white  plastic  clay 
underlying  the  loam.  The  general  stratigraphy  of  the  locality  is 
revealed  in  a well  near  the  pit. 

Section  of  Well  at  Langley  Brothers  Brick  Plant , Louisville. 

Feet 


3.  Surface  loam  (yellow) 6 

2.  Red  and  white  clay  and  sand 15 

1.  Blue  sandy  clay  with  lignite 4 


YALOBUSHA  COUNTY* 

GEOLOGY* 

The  Wilcox  (Lagrange)  formation  forms  the  subsurface  of  Yalo- 
busha County.  The  surficial  deposits  are  Lafayette  and  Columbia. 
The  brown  loam  of  the  latter  is  the  principal  clay  used  in  the  manu- 
facture of  brick  in  this  county. 

CLAY  INDUSTRY. 

Water  Valley. — At  Water  Valley  the  clay  of  the  surface  formations 
is  used  in  the  manufacture  of  brick  by  the  Norris  Brick  Manufacturing 
Company.  The  plant  was  established  in  1904.  The  brick  are 
molded  in  a stiff-mud  machine  of  the  plunger  type.  They  are  dried 
in  open  air  sheds  and  burned  in  rectangular  up-draft  kilns.  The  brick 


246 


CLAYS  OF  MISSISSIPPI. 


are  sometimes  dried  in  the  sun  without  checking.  The  clay  in  the 
pit  is  of  two  kinds,  a red  clay  at  the  bottom  of  the  pit,  probably  La- 
fayette, and  a brown  clay  overlying  the  red.  The  red  clay  cannot 
be  used  alone  as  it  is  too  plastic.  It  may  be  used  when  mixed  with 
the  more  non-plastic  brown  loam  lying  above. 

YAZOO  COUNTY. 

GEOLOGY. 

The  chief  bed  rock  formation  of  Yazoo  County  belongs  to  the 
Jackson  division  of  the  Eocene.  It  consists  of  clays,  marls,  sands  and 
impure  limestones,  usually  very  fossiliferous.  The  bed  rock  is  largely 
concealed  by  mantle  rock  belonging  to  the  Pliocene,  Pleistocene  and 
Post-Pleistocene  epochs.  To  the  Pliocene  may  be  assigned  a series 
of  cross-bedded  sands,  gravels  and  clays  constituting  the  Lafayette 
formation.  Both  laterally  and  vertically  the  constituent  materials 
of  the  formation  vary  greatly  and  pure  beds  of  sand  may  be  succeeded 
by  pure  beds  of  gravel  and  clay  or  by  mixtures  of  the  three.  The 
colors  are  predominantly  red,  orange  and  yellow.  The  thickness  of 
the  formation  rarely  exceeds  50  feet.  The  Pleistocene  is  represented 
by  the  Loess  and  possibly  by  the  Natchez  formation,  though  the  latter 
has  not  been  definitely  differentiated  from  the  Lafayette  in  Yazoo 
County.  The  Loess  is  a very  fine  silt  which  in  the  process  of  weather- 
ing produces  a surface  loam  with  a clay  substratum.  The  Columbia 
loam  rests  upon  the  Loess  and,  wherever  the  true  Loess  is  absent, 
upon  older  formations.  The  flood  plain  of  the  Mississippi  and  the 
Yazoo  Rivers  in  this  county,  called  the  Yazoo  delta,  is  covered  with 
alluvial  material  of  Post-Pleistocene  age. 

There  are  two  types  of  the  alluvial  material,  a sandy  loam  and  a 
plastic  clay.  The  loam  is  generally  light  in  color  and  of  greater 
weight  and  is  found  near  the  streams.  The  clay  is  dark,  light  in 
weight  and  of  finer  grain  and  found  in  the  interstream  areas. 

Topographically  Yazoo  County  may  be  divided  into  the  plain 
portion,  that  part  included  in  the  Yazoo  Delta,  and  the  hill  portion, 
that  section  of  the  county  lying  east  of  the  Yazoo  River. 

The  surface  of  the  county  rises  by  means  of  an  abrupt  escarpment 
from  the  flood  plain  to  the  hill  country.  The  flood  plain  area  forms 
an  exceeding  level  plain  which  lies  about  100  feet  above  sea  level. 


CLAYS  OF  NORTHERN  MISSISSIPPI. 


247 


The  escarpment  rises  to  a height  of  250  to  300  feet  above  this  plain. 
The  surface  descends  from  the  escarpment  toward  the  valley  of 
Black  River. 

The  river  front  of  the  escarpment  presents  a crenulated  margin 
produced  by  small  streams  which  have  cut  V-shaped  valleys  in  its 
front.  The  position  of  the  larger  streams  is  marked  by  valleys  with 
small  flood  plains  which  merge  into  the  larger  plain.  The  principal 
brick  materials  of  the  county  are  found  in  the  residual  clay  of  the 
Loess,  and  the  clays  of  the  delta,  which  may  also  be  used  for  road 
ballast.  Doubtless  there  are  also  deposits  of  the  Lafayette  and  some 
residual  clays  of  the  Jackson  which  could  be  used  in  the  manufacture 
of  brick. 

CLAY  INDUSTRY. 

Yazoo  City. — A residual  clay  overlying  the  Loess  at  Yazoo  City 
is  used  by  the  Montgomery  Land  Company  in  the  manufacture  of 
dry-pressed  brick.  The  Loess  assists  in  forming  the  bluffs  along  the 
border  of  the  flood  plain  east  of  Yazoo  City.  These  bluffs  are  mantled 
by  residual  clay,  which  is  thin  on  the  crest  of  the  hills  and  becomes 
thicker  in  the  depressions.  On  the  steeper  slopes  it  rarely  ever 
reaches  a thickness  of  3 feet.  In  the  depressions,  however,  a thick- 
ness of  8 feet  is  not  uncommon.  The  clay  substance  usually  increases 
toward  the  bottom  of  the  pit.  The  Loess  beneath  is  noticeably  non- 
plastic as  compared  with  the  clay.  The  Jackson  strata  are  revealed 
in  outcrops  near  the  base  of  the  hills.  The  weathered  surfaces  o£ 
the  exposures  exhibit  a gray  joint -like  clay  containing  shells.  The 
clay  is  very  plastic  and  seems  to  be  free  from  sand.  The  Lafayette 
gravels  rest  upon  the  Jackson  marls.  The  Lafayette  covers  the 
Jackson  to  the  depth  of  10  to  40  feet. 

The  chemical  composition  of  the  surface  brick  clay  is  given  in  the 
analysis  below: 

TABLE  108. 

ANALYSIS  OF  SURFACE  BRICK  CLAY,  YAZOO  CITY.  No.  60 


Moisture  (H2O) 2.37 

Volatile  matter  (CO2  etc.) 4.37 

Silicon  dioxide  (Si02) 72.65 

Iron  oxide  (Fe20j) 5.81 

Aluminum  oxide  (AI2O3) 11.25 

Calcium  oxide  (CaO) 1.12 

Magnesium  oxide  (MgO) 1.62 

Sulphur  trioxide  (SO3) .30’ 


Total 


99.49 


248 


CLAYS  OF  MISSISSIPPI. 


RATIONAL  ANALYSIS. 

Clay  substance 28.46 

Free  silica 59.42 

Impurities 8.85 

The  above  mentioned  clay  has  a tensile  strength  of  85  pounds  per 
square  inch  in  the  raw  state,  and  175  pounds  per  square  inch  in  the 
soft-burned  condition.  Its  total  shrinkage  is  4 per  cent  of  which  3 
per  cent  is  air  shrinkage.  It  requires  18  per  cent  of  water  to  render 
it  plastic.  The  soft-burned  brickettes  absorb  15.25  per  cent  of  water. 

TABLE  109. 


Name  of  Firm 


1. 

2. 

3. 

4. 

5. 

6. 

7. 

8. 

9. 

10. 

11. 

12. 

13. 

14. 

15. 

16. 

17. 

18. 

19. 

20. 
21. 
22. 

23. 

24. 

25. 

26. 

27. 

28. 

29. 

30. 

31. 

32. 

33. 

34. 

35. 

36. 

37. 

38. 

39. 

40. 

41. 

42. 


Clermont  Brick 


Jesty  Brick 


SSISSIPPI  CLAY 

WORKERS. 

Town 

County 

Product 

.Pontotoc 

. .Greenwood 

. . .Leflore 

“ 

.Baldwyn 

“ 

.Bay  St.  Louis. . . 

“ 

.Vicksburg 

. . .Warren 

“ 

.Grenada 

. . .Grenada 

. . . . “ 

.Meridian 

. . . Lauderdale . . . 

“ 

.Booneville 

. . .Prentiss 

. . . . Brick  and  tile 

. Crenshaw 

Brick 

. Brookhaven 

“ 

. Hattiesburg 

. . . Perry. 

“ 

.New  Albany 

“ 

.Jackson 

“ 

. Sardis 

. . .Panola 

“ 

. Amory 

. Grenada 

“ 

. Gulfport 

“ 

. Centerville 

“ 

.Charleston 

“ 

. Clarksdale 

. . . . Brick  and  tile 

. Biloxi 

. Macon 

. Columbus 

. .Lowndes 

“ 

.Natchez 

. . Adams 

“ 

. Corinth 

“ 

.Minter  City 

. Edwards 

. Holly  Springs . . . . 

. . Marshall 

. “ 

. Rienzi 

“ 

. Femwood 

“ 

. Vicksburg 

“ 

. Lumberton 

. . Lamar 

“ 

. Greenville 

. “ 

. Vicksburg 

. .Warren 

. Holcomb 

“ 

.Newton 

“ 

. Okolona 

. “ 

. Hazlehurst 

. . Copiah 

. Starkville 

“ 

. Biloxi 

. . y *• 

. Indianola 

“ 

.Winona 

. . Montgomery . . 

“ 

CLAYS  OF  MISSISSIPPI 


249 


43. 

44. 

45. 

46. 

47. 

48. 

49. 

50. 

51. 

52. 

53. 

54. 

55. 

56. 

57. 

58. 

59. 

60. 
61. 
62. 

63. 

64. 

65. 

66. 

67. 

68. 

69. 

70. 

71. 

72. 

73. 

74. 

75. 

76. 

77. 
77a 

78. 

79. 

80. 
81. 
82. 

83. 

84. 

85. 

86. 

87. 

88. 
89 

90. 

91. 

92. 

93. 

94. 

95. 

96. 

97. 

98. 


TABLE  109 — Continued. 

DIRECTORY  OF  MISSISSIPPI  CLAY  WORKERS— Continued. 


Name  of  Firm 

Landon  Brick' & Tile  Co 

Langley  Brick  Co 

Laurel  Brick  & Tile  Co 

Leakesville  Brick  Co 

Love  Wagon  Co 

Lowery  & Berry  Brick  Co 

Maben  Brick  Co 

Magnolia  Brick  Co 

Montgomery  Brick  Co 

Montgomery  Land  Co 

Mt.  Olive  Brick  Co 

Natchez  Brick  Co 

Nettleton  Manufacturing  Co ...  . 

New  Houlka  Brick  Co 

Norris  Brick  Manufacturing  Co. 

Ocean  Springs  Brick  Co 

Oxford  Brick  & Tile  Co 

Pope  Brick  Manufacturing  Co . . 

Quitman  Brick  Co 

Rheinhart  Brick  & Tile  Co 

Ripley  Brick  Manufacturing  Co . 

Riverside  Brick  Co 

Robinsonville  Brick  & Tile  Co. . 
Saltillo  Brick  Manufacturing  Co 

Smith  Brick  Co 

Storer  & Miller  Brick  Co 

Storer  & Miller  Brick  Co 

Success  Brick  & Tile  Co 

Summit  Brick  Co 

Sunflower  Brick  Co. 

Tanner  Brick  Co 

Taylor  & Thomas  Brick  Co 

Tayior  Brick  Co 

Thrasher  Brick  Co 

Thornton  Brick  Co 

Tubbs  Brick  Co 

Union  County  Brick  & Tile  Co. . 
Utica  Brick  Manufacturing  Co . . 

Vaiden  Brick  & Tile  Co 

Valley  Brick  & Tile  Co. 

Vardaman  Brick  Co 

Verona  Brick  & Tile  Co 

Weems  Brick  Co 

Welch-Trotter  Brick  Co 

West  Point  Brick  Co 

White  & May  Brick  Co 

Woodville  Brick  Co 

Cumberland  Pottery 

Holly  Springs  Stoneware  Co ... . 

Allison  Pottery  Co 

Davidson  Pottery 

Kennedy  Pottery % 

Stewart  Pottery 

Loyd  Pottery 

Lockhart  Pottery  Co 

Moorhead  Manufacturing  Co ...  . 
Summerford  Pottery 


T own  County  Product 

.Landon Harrison “ 

. Louisville W inston “ 

.Laurel Jones “ 

. Leakesville Greene “ 

. Durant Holmes “ 

.Blue  Mountain Tippah “ 

. Maben Oktibbeha “ 

.Magnolia Pike “ 

. Senatobia Tate “ 

.Yazoo Yazoo “ 

.Mt.  Olive Covington “ 

. N atchez Adams “ 

.Nettleton Lee “ 

.New  Houlka Chickasaw “ 

.Water  V alley Y alobusha “ 

.Ocean  Springs Jackson “ 

. Oxford Lafayette “ 

. Houston Chickasaw “ 

. Quitman Clarke “ 

. Clarksdale Coahoma Brick  and  tile 

. Ripley Tippah Brick 

. Hattiesburg Perry “ 

.Robinsonville Tunica Brick  and  tile 

. Saltillo Lee Brick 

. Canton Madison “ 

. Kosciusko Attala “ 

. Louisville Winston “ 

. Greenwood Leflore “ 

.Summit Pike “ 

. Indianola Sunflower “ 

. Vicksburg W arren “ 

. Crystal  Springs Copiah “ 

. J ackson H inds ‘ 

. Thrasher Prenti  ss “ 

. V icksburg W arren “ 

. Amory Monroe “ 

.New  Albany Union “ 

.Utica Hinds “ 

.Vaiden Carroll “ 

.Lake  View DeSoto “ 

. V ardaman Calhoun “ 

.Verona Lee “ 

.Sun Scott “ 

.West  Point Clay “ 

.West  Point Clay “ 

. McComb  City Pike “ 

.Woodville Wilkinson “ 

. Cumberland Webster Stoneware 

. Holly  Springs Marshall " 

.Holly  Springs Marshall “ 

.Miston Itawamba “ 

. M iston Itawamba “ 

. Perkinsville Winston “ 

Webster r.  . . .Winston “ 

Lockhart Lauderdale “ 

Moorhead Sunflower Drain  tile 

Miston Itawamba Stoneware 


ACKNOWLEDGMENTS, 


The  writer  of  this  report  desires  to  express  his  very  great  obliga- 
tions to  the  men  engaged  in  the  manufacture  of  clay  wares  in  Missis- 
sippi for  the  generous  and  cordial  way  in  which  they  have  responded 
to  requests  for  information  necessary  to  the  completion  of  this  report. 

The  chemical  work  included  in  this  report  was  done  under  the 
direction  of  Dr.  W.  F.  Hand,  State  Chemist,  and  to  him  and  his  corps 
of  assistants  all  credit  is  due.  A few  chemical  analyses  derived  from 
other  sources  are  credited  at  their  proper  places. 

The  writer  is  indebted  to  Dr.  Calvin  S.  Brown  for  some  reports  of 
brick  plants  and  for  the  samples  of  lignites  mentioned  in  the  mono- 
graph. Also  to  A.  F.  Crider,  Director  of  the  Survey,  for  reports  of 
brick  plants,  for  reading  the  manuscript  and  for  other  courtesies 
extended. . 

In  the  preparation  of  the  report  the  writer  is  under  special  obli- 
gations to  the  following  reports  and  works  on  ceramics: 

Treatise  on  Ceramic  Arts,  Bourry,  1901. 

Clays  of  Alabama,  Bui.  6,  Ala.  Geol.  Sur.,  1900,  Smith  and  Reis. 

Clays  of  Iowa,  la.  Geol.  Sur.,  Vol.  XIV,  1904,  Beyer  and  Williams 

Clays  of  Missouri,  Mo.  Geol.  Sur.  XI,  1896,  Wheeler. 

Clays  of  New  Jersey,  N.  J.  Geol.  Sur.  VI,  Kummel,  Reis  and  Knapp. 

Economic  Geology  of  the  United  States,  Reis,  1905. 

Clays  of  Georgia,  Ga.  Geol.  Sur.,  Ladd,  1898. 

Clays  of  Pennsylvania,  Hopkins,  1897. 

Geology  of  Clays,  Rolfe,  in  Brick,  Nov.,  1906. 

Earth  History,  Chamberlin  and  Salisbury  (Geology). 

Efflorescence  of  Brick,  Am.  Cer.  Soc.,  Vol.  VIII,  Jones. 

Also  other  papers  printed  in  Brick  and  Clay  Worker. 


INDEX, 


A.  Page. 

Aberdeen.  _ 211 

Absorption 134 

tests 135 

Ackerman 182 

Acknowledgments 250 

Adulterant  clay 40 

Adobe  clay 1 33 

• Agricultural  College 220 

Air  shrinkage 62 

Alabama  coals 126 

Alcorn  County 169 

geology  of 169 

clay  industry. __ 170 

Alkalies 49 

Allison  Stoneware  Co 208 

Alumina 47 

Amory •_ 212 


Analyses  of  clays. -44,  156,  157,  159, 
160,  161,  163,  165,  170, 
174,  175,  177,  178,  179, 
182,  184,  185,  487,  188, 
190,  191,  192,  196,  198, 
199,  200,  201,  204,  205, 
207,  208,  209,  210,  212, 
215,  216,  217,  218,  219, 
220,  222,  224,  225,  228, 
229,  230,  231,  232,  233, 
234,  236,  237,  238,  239, 
242,  243,  244.  247. 


ultimate 46 

mechanical 75 

of  tripoli 154 

of  limestone 154,  155,  158, 

163,  171,  175,  180,  181, 

220,  222. 

of  shale 155 

of  sandstones.  __ 159 

of  claystones. 164 

Anthracite 126 

Attala  County 172 

geology  of 172 

clay  industry .172-173 

Artificial  dryers 118 

Auger  brick  machine 102 

B. 

Ball  mills 92 

Ballast  clay 140 


Page. 

Banks  cited 133 

Barnett  clay 163 

Batesville 224 

Basalt 28 

Beehive  kilns 122 

Beyer  cited. 76,  94,  112 

Bledsoe  Brick  Co. 189 

Beck  Brick  Co 241 

Bluff  formation... 167 

Bonding  power 77 

Booneville — 226 

Brick  Co 226 

Bowlders 25 

Brandon... 1 227 

Breccia.  _ 27 

Brick,  properties  of. 133-151 

absorption. 134 

clay 39 

cracked 144 

crushing  strength 134 

defects  of  color. 145 

defects  of  form. 143 

defects  of  structure 148 

early  history  of 13 

effloresence  in 146 

granulations  in 150 

impact  strength  of 136 

kiln,  white  in 146 

laminations  in 150 

light  color  in 145 

in  construction  work 141 

size  of 138 

swollen 143 

tensile  strength... 137 

tests  of 133 

transverse  strength 137 

varieties  in  a kiln 141 

wall,  white  in 147 

warped.  _ 144 

weight  of.  _ . . 138 

machines.  . 97-108 

Beehive  kilns 122 

Beyer  cited.- 76,  94,  112 

C. 

Calcite 56 

Calcium  oxide 48 


252  iNbfex. 


Page. 

Page. 

Calorific  value  of  coals  123- 

129 

clay — continued. 

value  of  lignites  __ 

130 

shrinkage  of  __ 

61 

Camp  Brick  Co 

212 

structure  of.. 

61 

Canton 

206 

specific  gravity. 

65 

Carl  Brick  Co  __ 

189 

taste 

67 

Cement  clay 

40 

tensile  strength 

..  77-80 

Cenozoic  era 

160 

transported 

35 

Chalk 

27 

uses  _ 

39-40 

Chemical  components  of  clay_ 

43 

Clay  County. 

175 

elements  of  clay_--_ 

43 

geology  of  _ 

175 

properties  of  clay 

43 

clay  industry 

175 

China  clay 

40 

Coahoma  County 

183 

Chickasaw  County  _ 

180 

clay  industry 

183 

geology  of 

180 

geology . ... 

183 

clay  industry. 

180 

Coal  _ 

125 

Choctaw  County 

182 

classes  of 

124 

geology  of  _ _ 

182 

Alabama  _ 

129 

Claiborne  stage  _ 161- 

162 

anthracite  ...  ^ 

126 

Clamp  kilns 

121 

bituminous.  _ __ 

126 

Clarke,  F.  W.,  cited  _ 

29 

calorific  value 

126 

Clarksdale 

183 

College  Hill.. 

198 

Classification  of  clay 

36 

.-39 

Color  of  clays 

65 

of  rocks 

27 

-28 

Columbia  formation 

167-168 

Clay,  bonding  power  of  _ 

77 

Composition  of  seger  cones.. 

__  72-73 

Carroll  County. 

173 

of  the  lithosphere. 

29 

chemical  components  of. 

43 

of  fuel  gases  _ 

132 

chemical  elements  of 

43 

Conglomerate 

25 

chemical  properties  of 

43 

-59 

Continuous  kilns 

122 

classification  of  _ 

36 

Coquina 

27 

Beyer  and  Williams 

38 

Corinth 

170 

Ladd’s 

38 

Cretaceous  period  _ 

155 

Reis’  _ 

37 

Crushers. 

89 

Wheeler’s 

36 

.-37 

Crushing  machines  _ 

93 

fusibility.  __  _ 

70 

Cypress  pond... 

155 

color. 

65 

E. 

definition.  _ 

24 

Eastport  _ 

154 

dilution  of...  __ 

63 

Elizabeth  _ 

242 

feel 

67 

Eocene  formation  _ 

160 

hardness  

66 

Eutaw  formation. 

occurrence  of... 

41 

F. 

. odor...  _ 

67 

Feel  of  clay..  _.  _ 

67 

origin 

32 

Feldspar.  _ _ ... 

57 

physical  properties 

61 

-81 

composition  of 

57 

plasticity 

68 

Forest.  __  . 

230 

factors  of.. 

69 

1 — 70 

Fuel 

123 

• porosity. 

81 

calorific  value  of__ 

123 

processes  of  manufacture  83- 

123 

classes  of.  _ _ _ _ . 

124 

residual _ _ _ _ 

33 

value  of  gases. _ . .. 

132 

slaking.  _ 

67 

Fusibility  of  clay. 

70 

G. 

Gas  as  fuel___ 

Garbish  Brick  Co_. 

Granite 

Grand  Gulf — 

Granulator.  __ 

Gravel 

Greenville 

Greenwood.  __ 

Gregory  Brick  Co._ 

Grenada  County 

geology  of 

clay  industry.  _ 

Grinding  clay . 

Gypsum 


H. 

Hampton.  . 

Hancock  Brick  Co — 

Hand  moulding 

Hawkins  and  Hodges. 

Haulage  - 

Hematite 

Hernando...... 

Hilgard  cited. 

Hinds  County 

Holcomb 

Holmes  County.  

Holly  Springs 

Hopkins  cited.  _ 

Hornblende. 

Houston 


Ilmentite.  _ - 
Indianola..- 
Iron  in  clay. 
Iron  oxide. - 
Iuka 


J- 

Jackson 

stage 

K.' 

Kaolin 

Kaolinite.  _ _ 

Kemper  County 

Kilns 

Kosciusko 


INDEX. 


253 


Page. 

131 

241 
26 

164 

89 

25 

242 
203 

24 

188 

188 

189 

89 

55 


243 
214 
99 
180 
83-86 
53 
188 
75,  186 
191 
191 
193 
208 
75 
58 
181 


54 
232 
52-55 
48,  52 
156 


191 

162 


. 44-51 
50 
197 

120-122 

172 


L. 

Page. 

Lafayette  County. . 

197 

formation  _ 

165 

Lakeview. 

186 

Lapilli 

28 

Lauderdale.  _ 

199 

Lava.. 

28 

Lee  County 

200 

Leflore  County 

203 

Lexington 

193 

Loess  

-.24,  27,  33,  167 

Lime  group. 

27 

Limonite 

52 

Limestone 

26,  27,  34 

Lithosphere  _ 

23-29 

Loam 

: 27 

Lockhart 

* 199 

Lowndes  County  _ 

205 

Loyd  pottery 

244 

M. 

Maben.... ... . 222 

Macon 215 

Madison  County 206 

Magnesia 49 

Marble 26,28 

Marcasite 54 

Marl 24 

Marshall  County 207 

Mechanical  analysis. 75 

Meridian 200 

Mesozoic  era 155-159 

Metamorphic  rock 28 

Mica. _ 57 

Midway  stage 160 

Minerals  in  clay 50-59 

Miocene  epoch — 164 

Mississippi  lignites  __  129 

Miscellaneous  clays 40 

Molding ..  97,  102 

methods . . 108 

Monroe  County 211 

Montgomery  County 210 

Moorhead 234 

Morton 231 


N. 


Natchez. 167 

New  Albany 237 


254 


INDEX. 


Page. 

NewHoulka--_ 181 

Newton  County 214 

Nettleton 203 

Norris  Brick  Co 245 

Noxubee  County 215 

O. 

Odor  of  clay 67 

Oil___ 130 

Okolona 180 

Oktibbeha  County.  _ 218 

Oligiocene. 163-164 

Origin  of  clay ...  32 

Osborne  cited 75 

P. 

Paleozoic  era _ 153-155 

Panola  County.. _ 223 

Paper  clay.  _ _ 40 

Peaf- 25,  125 

Physical  properties  of  clay 61-82 

Pick  and  shovel  mining 83 

Plasticity.  _ 68 

Plow  and  scraper  mining 84 

Plunger  machine 102 

Pontotoc 225 

Pope  Brick  Co 181 

Porosity 81 

Prentiss  County 226 

Puckett  and  Lindamood  Brick 

Co_-_ 265 

Pug  mill 96 

Pyrite__ _ 53 

Q. 

Quartzite. 28 

Quaternary 165 

R. 

Rankin  County 227 

State  farm 229 

Recent  deposits 168 

Regolith 23,24 

Reis,  H.,  cited 44,  45 

Repressing 105 

Residual  clay 33 

Rheinhart  Brick  Co 185 

Rienzi___ 171 

Ring  pit 95 

Ripley 235 

formation 159 


Robinsonville. 

Rocks 

Rolls 

Rattler  test_- 


Page. 

236 

27,  28,  30,  34 

89 

136 


S. 

Saltillo. 202 

Sandstone  ___ 25 

Sand__ 24 

Sardis 223 

Schist 28 

Scoriae 28 

Scott  Co 230 

Screening.  _ 93—95 

Screens..------ 93 

Sedimentary  rocks 32 

Selma  chalk 158-159 

Selection  of  timber 86 

Senatobia 234 

Serrations  in  brick 151 

Shrinkage  of  clay 162 

Shale 26 

Selenite 53 

Silica 47-51 

Size  of  Mississippi  brick 139 

Slate 28 

Slaking 67 

Soak  pit 93 

Soft-mud  process _ 99 

Specific  gravity 65 

Subcarboniferous 154-155 

Success  Brick  and  Tile  Co 203 

Sunflower  County 232 

Starkville.. 218 

Stoneware  clay 40 

Stiff-mud  process 99 

Syenite.'. 28 


T. 


Taste  of  clay 67 

Tate  County--. 234 

Taylor  Brick  Co_--_- 191 

• Tanner  Brick  Co 240 

Tempering 95-97 

Tensile  strength 77-80 

Tertiary  period — 160 

Terra  cotta 40 

Till - 27,33 


INDEX. 


255 


Page. 

Tile  clay 40 

Tippah  County 235 

Thrasher 227 

Thornton  Brick  Co 241 

Tubbs  Brick  Co 212 

Tunica  County- - _ 236 

Turkett 226 

Tuscaloosa  formation 155 

Tufa 27 

Transportation  of  clay 85-89 

Travertine 27 

Trachite 28 

Tripoli 154 

U. 

Union  Brick  and  Tile  Co 239 

County 237 

V. 

Van  Hise,  cited 219 

Varieties  of  brick. 141 

Vicksburg _240,  163 

Verona. _ 202 


W.  Page. 

Wahalak 197 

Wall  white... 147 

Warped  brick 144 

Warren  County 239 

Washington  County 242 

Water  Valley 245 

Webster  County 244 

Weight  of  brick 138 

Welch-Trotter  Brick  Co 177 

West  Point 175 

Whitney,  cited--. 75 

Wilcox  stage .160,  161 

Williams,  cited.  _ 76,  94,  li2 

Winona 210 

Winston  County.  . 244 

Wood 124 

Y. 

Y alobusha  County. .245 

Yazoo  City ... 247 

County 246 


® Butler 


— 

'■“H,  ^ 

L/y 

r 

! 


Mississippi 

State  Geological  Survey 

ALBERT  F.  CRIDER,  DIRECTOR. 


BULLETIN  NO  3 


THE 


LIGNITE  OF  MISSISSIPPI 


By  CALVIN  S.  BROWN 


H 

i 


i 

l; 


i 


STATE  GEOLOGICAL  COMMISSION, 


His  Excellency,  James  K.  Vardaman Governor 


Dunbar  Rowland Director  of  Archives  and  History 

A.  A.  Kincannon Chancellor  of  the  State  University 

J.  C.  Hardy President  Agricultural  and  Mechanical  College 

Joe  N.  Powers State  Superintendent  of  Education 


GEOLOGICAL  CORPS, 


Albert  F.  Crider. 
William  N.  Logan 
Calvin  S.  Brown  . 


Director 

Assistant  Geologist 
Assistant  Geologist 


LETTER  OF  TRANSMITTAL. 


Jackson,  Mississippi,  July  20,  1907. 

To  His  Excellency,  Governor  James  K.  Vardaman,  Chairman , and 
Members  of  the  Geological  Commission: 

Gentlemen — I submit  herewith  a report  on  the  lignite  of  Mis- 
sissippi by  Dr.  Calvin  S.  Brown,  and  respectfully  recommend  its 
publication.  Very  respectfully, 

Albert  F.  Crider, 

Director. 


CONTENTS* 


PAGE 

Letter  of  transmittal 3 

Contents 4 

List  of  tables 7 

Bibliography 8 

Lignite  in  general 9 

Definitions 9 

Physical  properties  of  lignite 10 

Chemical  properties  of  lignite 10 

Origin  of  lignite 13 

Geological  age  of  lignite 13 

Lignite  of  Mississippi 14 

Field  work 14 

The  lignite  area  of  Mississippi 14 

Topography  of  the  lignite  area 15 

The  geological  formations  of  Mississippi 16 

The  Wilcox 19 

Other  lignite-bearing  formations 21 

The  geological  map 22 

Mode  of  occurrence  of  lignite 22 

Thickness  of  beds 24 

Uncertainty  of  beds ; 24 

Variation  in  quality 25 

Some  common  errors 26 

Burning  beds 27 

List  of  localities  by  counties 28 

De  Soto  County 28 

Marshall  County 28 

Benton  County 28 

Tippah  County 29 

Tate  County 30 

Panola  County 30 

Lafayette  County 31 


CONTENTS. 


5 


List  of  localities  by  counties — Continued.  page 

Pontotoc  County 34 

Itawamba  County 34 

Monroe  County 35 

Calhoun  County 35 

Yalobusha  County 37 

Tallahatchie  County 37 

Webster  County 38 

Choctaw  County 39 

Winston  County 40 

Neshoba  County 41 

Kemper  County 41 

Lauderdale  County 42 

Jasper  County 44 

Rankin  County 44 

Hinds  County 44 

Claiborne  County 45 

Warren  County 45 

Yazoo  County 46 

Madison  County 46 

Scott  County 46 

Holmes  County 47 

Carroll  County 50 

Analyses  of  Mississippi  lignite 51 

vSamples  and  analyses 51 

Interpretation  of  the  table 52 

Mississippi  lignites  compared  with  others 52 

Worthless  lignites 53 

Moisture 54 

Ash 55 

Sulphur 56 

Specific  gravity 56 

Analyses  by  Dr.  Parr 57 

Uses  of  lignite 58 

General 58 

In  open  grates 58 

In  stoves 58 

In  the  forge 59 


6 


CONTENTS. 


Uses  of  lignite — Continued.  page 

For  burning  brick 59 

Under  boilers 60 

By  briquetting . 62 

By  coking 63 

For  illuminating  gas. . . , 63 

For  producer  gas 63 

For  tar 66 

For  fertilizer 66 

Acknowledgments 67 

Index 68 

Map after  71 


LIST  OF  TABLES. 


PAGE 

1.  Ultimate  analyses  of  coal  and  lignite 11 

2.  Comparative  analyses  of  coal  and  lignite 12 

3.  The  geological  formations  of  Mississippi 16 

4.  Analyses  of  Wilcox  clays 20 

5.  Analyses  of  Mississippi  lignites 51 

6.  Comparative  analyses  of  lignites 53 

7.  Analyses  of  inferior  or  worthless  lignites 53 

8.  Moisture  in  fresh  lignites 54 

9.  Analyses  of  ash  from  lignite 55 

10.  Specific  gravity  of  lignites 56 

11.  Analyses  of  Mississippi  lignites 57 

12.  Lignites  tried  in  the  forge 59 

13.  Analyses  of  clays  associated  with  Holmes  County  lignites... . 60 

14.  Lignite  test  at  Jamestown,  North  Dakota 61 

15.  Comparative  tests  of  coal  and  lignite 61 

16.  Experiments  in  briquetting  lignite 62 

17.  Comparative  tests  with  boiler  and  gas-producer 64 

18.  Producer-gas  tests  of  coals  and  lignites 64 

19.  Analyses  of  producer  gas  from  lignites 66 


BIBLIOGRAPHY. 


Wailes — Agriculture  and  Geology  of  Mississippi,  1854. 

Harper — Geology  and  Agriculture  of  Mississippi,  1857. 

Hilgard — Agriculture  and  Geology  of  Mississippi,  1860. 

McGee — The  Lafayette  Formation,  Washington,  1892. 

Mabry — The  Brown  or  Yellow  Loam  of  North  Mississippi,  Journal 
of  Geology,  1898. 

Shimek — The  Loess  of  Natchez,  Mississippi,  American  Geologist,  1902- 
Logan — Geology  of  Oktibbeha  County,  1904. 

Logan — Preliminary  Report  on  the  Clays  of  Mississippi,  1905. 
Crider  and  Johnson — Underground-water  Resources  of  Mississippi, 
U.  S.  G.  S.,  W.  S.  159,  Washington,  1906. 

Crider — Geology  and  Mineral  Resources  of  Mississippi,  U.  S.  G.  S., 
Bull.  283,  Washington,  1906. 


Dumble — Brown  Coal  and  Lignite  of  Texas,  Austin,  1892. 
Burchard — Lignites  of  the  Middle  and  Upper  Missouri  Valley,  U.  S. 

G.  S.,  Bull.  225,  Washington,  1903. 

Wilder — In  Second  Report  of  State  Geological  Survey  of  North 
Dakota,  Bismarck,  1903. 

Wilder — In  Third  Report  of  State  Geological  Survey  of  North 
Dakota,  Bismarck,  1904. 

Wilder — The  Lignite  of  North  Dakota,  U.  S.  G.  S.,  W.  S.  No.  117, 
Washington,  1905. 

Parker,  Holmes  and  Campbell — Report  on  the  Coal-testing  Plant 
at  St.  Louis  in  1904,  U.  S.  G.  S.,  P.  P.  48,  Washington,  1906. 


LIGNITE  IN  GENERAL. 


DEFINITIONS. 

I 

Lignite  may  be  defined  as  immature  coal  or  vegetable  matter 
in  the  process  of  forming  coal;  it  is  a fuel  intermediate  in  heating 
capacity  between  wood  and  coal.  It  belongs  to  a much  more  recent 
geological  age  than  stone  coal.  Lignite  is  often  mistaken  for  stone 
coal,  especially  when  wet,  but  may  be  readily  distinguished  from  it, 
even  by  the  untrained  observer,  by  noting  the  following  differences. 
In  general  coal  is  black,  whereas  lignite  is  brown.  When  taken  from 
water  or  when  very  moist,  as  many  of  the  samples  of  Mississippi 
lignites  are  when  first  found,  it  appears  rather  black,  but  upon  cutting 
with  a knife  exposes  a brown  surface;  coal  remains  black  when  cut. 
When  wet  lignite  is  cut  with  a sharp  knife  it  leaves  a smooth  surface 
or  tends  to  do  so,  whereas  coal  when  cut  leaves  a rough  surface  owing 
to  its  hardness  and  brittleness  and  tendency  to  fracture  before  the 
knife.  Lignite  upon  drying  cuts  more  like  coal  but  is  seldom  as  hard 
and  compact.  When  a piece  of  dry  lignite  is  put  into  water  it  gives 
out  for  some  moments  a characteristic  crackling  sound  or  click;  this 
is  not  true  of  coal.  The  fracture  of  coal  is  bright  and  glossy,  that  of 
lignite  usually  dull.  Lignite  crumbles  within  a short  time  upon  being 
exposed  to  the  weather,  whereas  coal  resists  the  influence  of  weather- 
ing much  longer. 

Reports  of  the  discovery  of  coal  in  Mississippi  are  of  frequent 
occurrence  in  the  newspapers,  and  in  most  cases  have  their  origin  in 
the  discovery  of  lignite.  If  the  finder  would  take  the  trouble  in  the 
future  to  compare  his  material  carefully  with  a piece  of  coal  before 
spreading  reports,  many  errors  would  be  avoided.  If  after  the  first 
comparison  there  is  still  doubt  in  his  mind,  let  him  place  the  coal 
and  the  lignite  side  by  side  in  the  sun  for  a few  days  and  the  difference 
will  become  apparent.  No  true  coal  has  ever  been  found  in  Mis- 
sissippi, and  judging  from  geological  conditions  there  is  little  proba- 
bility that  it  will  ever  be  found. 

There  are  within  the  lignite  belts  of  Mississippi  much  lignitic  clay 
and  other  lignitic  earth.  These  contain  more  or  less  carbonaceous 
matter,  but  should  not  be  confused  with  lignite.  It  is  difficult  of 
course  to  draw  a hard  and  fast  line  between  lignitic  earth  and  earthy 


10 


LIGNITE. 


lignite;  still  none  of  these  earthy  materials  should  be  called  lignite 
which  have  not  enough  carbonaceous  matter  to  enable  them  to  bum 
readily  under  average  conditions.  Lignite  is  sometimes  called  brown 
coal. 

PHYSICAL  PROPERTIES  OF  LIGNITE. 

In  color  lignite  is  brown  or  in  the  best  qualities  black,  shading  at 
times  toward  yellow  and  red;  the  streak  and  powder  are  usually 
brown.  Its  luster  varies  from  dull  to  brilliant  according  to  the 
composition  and  the  impurities  in  it.  Its  texture  also  varies  within 
wide  limits;  in  the  purer,  better  qualities  it  is  hard,  firm,  and  com- 
pact; in  others  it  is  soft;  in  others  brittle.  Some  specimens  tend  to 
crumble  upon  exposure  much  more  readily  than  others.  In  some 
specimens  the  woody  texture  is  obliterated ; in  others  it  is  quite  appar- 
ent ; in  some  instances  pieces  of  wood  are  found  but  slightly  altered ; 
in  others  pieces  of  logs  completely  silicified  occur;  and  occasionally 
the  same  logs  will  be  partly  lignitized  and  partly  petrified.  Some 
samples  of  lignite  show  leaves,  twigs,  pine  needles,  and  other  small 
parts  of  plants.  Lignite  bums  with  both  flame  and  smoke  and 
gives  off  a disagreeable  odor  in  the  process.  It  does  not  fuse  or  cake 
upon  burning,  hence  is  not  ordinarily  available  for  making  coke. 
Owing  to  the  amount  of  earthy  impurities  the  percentage  of  ash  left 
after  burning  is  frequently  high.  The  specific  gravity  of  lignite  is 
usually  less  than  that  of  bituminous  coal  and  anthracite;  sometimes, 
however,  it  is  as  high  as  that  of  bituminous  coal*  owing  to  earthy 
impurities  contained.  Roughly  speaking  we  may  put  the  specific 
gravity  of  lignite  at  1 .2  to  1 . 5.  • The  fracture  of  lignite  in  some  of  the 
harder  varieties  is  conchoidal,  in  other  varieties  it  is  irregular;  in 
some  the  lignite  tends  to  block  in  vertical  lines,  and  it  often  has  planes 
of  cleavage  parallel  to  the  stratification ; in  the  woody  types  there  is 
cleavage  parallel  to  the  grain  of  the  wood.  Most  lignites  have  the 
capacity  of  absorbing  a large  amount  of  moisture  and  when  first 
mined  the  percentage  may  be  as  high  as  thirty-five  or  even  fifty. 
When  exposed  to  the  air  this  moisture  evaporates  in  part,  as  a result 
of  which  the  lignite  tends  to  disintegrate. 

CHEMICAL  PROPERTIES  OF  LIGNITE. 

Coal  and  lignite  are  composed  of  carbon,  hydrogen,  oxygen,  and 
nitrogen,  the  principal  element  being  carbon.  In  addition  to  these 


CHEMICAL  PROPERTIES. 


11 


elements  there  are  usually  present  as  impurities  sulphur  and  earthy 
matter.  This  earthy  matter  remains  behind  upon  burning  in  the 
form  of  ashes.  The  following  ultimate  analyses  of  air-dried  samples 
made  by  the  St.  Louis  Coal -testing  Plant  of  the  United  States  Geo- 
logical Survey  in  1904  give  an  idea  of  the  relative  proportion  of  these 
constituents  in  bituminous  coal  and  lignites: 

TABLE  1. 

ULTIMATE  ANALYSES  OF  COAL  AND  LIGNITE. 

(By  U.  S.  Geol.  Survey.) 


No. 

Kind 

Locality 

C 

H 

0 

N 

5 

Ash 

Total 

B.  T.  U. 

1 

Bituminous  coal.. 

Bonanza,  Ark. . . . 

80.03 

4.13 

3.20 

1.40 

1.90 

9.34 

100 

13,961 

2 

Bituminous  coal. . 

Kentucky 

78.31 

5.36 

8.80 

1.85 

1.2£ 

4.44 

100 

14,319 

3 

Bituminous  coal. . 

Carbon  Hill,  Ala. . 

69.24 

4.79 

10.87 

1.55 

1.02 

12.53 

100 

12,449 

4 

Rlark  lignite 

Wyoming 

58.41 

6.09 

28.99 

1.09 

.63 

4.79 

100 

10,355 

5 

Brown  lignite .... 

Texas 

57.31 

5.28 

25.83 

1.06 

.71 

9.81 

100 

9,904 

6 

Brown  lignite .... 

North  Dakota. . . . 

55.16 

5.61 

30.98 

.91 

.63 

6.71 

100 

9,491 

It  will  be  observed  from  the  preceding  table  that  in  a general  way 
the  heating  or  calorific  value  (B.  T.  U.,  British  thermal  units)  is  pro- 
portional to  the  amount  of  carbon  contained  in  the  coal  or  lignite. 
It  will  be  observed  however  that  the  Kentucky  coal  has  a higher 
heating  capacity  than  the  Arkansas  coal,  although  the  latter  has  a 
slightly  higher  percentage  of  carbon ; this  is  due  to  the  large  amount 
of  ash  or  inert  matter  which  the  Arkansas  coal  contains.  The  oxygen 
in  coal  and  lignite  adds  nothing  to  its  value,  as  might  be  supposed 
at  first  thought,  for  the  air  furnishes  all  the  oxygen  needed  for  com- 
bustion; furthermore  the  part  of  the  oxygen  contained  in  the  water 
(H20)  is  a positive  disadvantage  to  the  coal  or  lignite,  as  the  water 
must  absorb  some  of  the  heat  in  the  process  of  vaporization. 

Instead,  however,  of  the  method  of  ultimate  analysis  shown  above, 
proximate  analysis  is  usually  employed  for  coal  and  lignite,  as  it 
shows  the  amount  of  fixed  carbon  and  volatile  matter  (combustible 
constituents)  and  of  water  and  ash  (non-combustible  constituents). 
It  should  be  remembered,  however,  that  not  all  volatile  matter  is 
combustible,  especially  in  lignite.  The  following  table  of  proximate 
analyses  made  on  an  air-dried  basis  will  show  the  position  of  lignite 
as  compared  with  other  fuels: 


12 


LIGNITE. 


Q 

£ 

< 

►J  o 

<£  in 

• 8 § 

" 8 

Ld  O ai 

3 C/2  g 

CQ  W *G 

< £ s 

H 3 I 

3 S 

H 

> 

< 

Pi 

< 

a, 


-S  e 


•8  v 
£r« 


I 


JU  JD  JD  T3 

a a & & g 

a a ^ 


SSI-M*! 

<u  m “ r/i  m O 

bo  tso  TO  *"  w 

g g <u  id  •> 

w 


> > rt 

< < c/2  m co 


ID 

K ^ 

<D  . 

£1 


m a 

•*r  TO 

iJ  C/2 


O Z 


A A v * 
? TO  c/3  • C/3 


O O 


'O  ,q  -a 

b c a ^ c 


ID  HH 

o ” 

c/3c/3c/3^c/3^^Hc/2^c/3 

<<3£c/3b>c/3^Wb>^t> 


Ol  IO  Ol  Ol  H 

H 00  ^ O l> 

w.  N.  t °.  O. 

T*l'  CO  <N  .-T  o’ 


~ 


10  O ^ il  N CO 


0)0)10(0 


■HOOOiO-^COi-iCOCOt^ 
T)i  CO  H ii  N CO  H (O  o N (O 


j>  - . 

2 .£  o w 

8 gfg  g 

fc  £ § 3 § 
r - •§ 

a g*  p3 

H(Sg.  „ 
x *° 


o-l 

■S32 


o 5 -£ 

a^^- 

C O w H V"  V-i  O 

* 3 S 3 to  « J§ 

SfflcoSoQo 


II 


< H 


o o 

A 


TO  o 

t*  £ 


t/>  to  t/)  CO 

3 3 3 3 

OOOO 
C 3 C C 


S 2 g g/g  |555SS 

1 1 I I I I g g | 6 £ 


|Q  CO  N 00  O)  O H 


ORIGIN  OF  LIGNITE. 


13 


ORIGIN  OF  LIGNITE* 

Lignite,  like  coal,  is  of  vegetable  origin.  The  process  of  formation 
of  these  fuels  seems  to  be  briefly  as  follows : vegetable  matter  accum- 
ulated to  considerable  thickness;  this  was  then  covered  by  water  or 
earth,  and  ultimately  by  earth  alone;  chemical  changes  gradually 
took  place  by  which  oxygen  was  lost  and  the  relative  proportion  of 
carbon  increased;  along  with  this,  due  to  these  chemical  changes, 
to  pressure,  and  perhaps  to  other  causes,  took  place  a considerable 
decrease  in  volume.  The  process  of  transformation  was  very  slow 
and  required  vast  geological  ages  for  its  completion.  The  various 
stages  of  this  change  may  be  seen  in  peat,  lignite,  bituminous  coal, 
and  anthracite,  the  transformation  being  least  in  peat  and  greatest 
in  anthracite.  In  the  lignites  the  vegetable  structure  is  often  still 
plainly  visible,  pine  needles,  small  parts  of  plants,  woody  branches 
and  trunks  being  frequently  found.  The  woody  matter  occurs  in  all 
stages  of  transformation  from  simple  wood  to  completely  lignitized 
matter.  Side  by  side  in  the  same  bed  of  lignite  may  occur  a trunk 
of  but  slightly  altered  wood  and  a trunk  of  petrified  (silicified)  wood 
containing  enough  carbonaceous  matter  to  make  it  brown  or  black. 
Indeed  the  same  trunk  is  sometimes  partly  lignitized  and  partly 
silicified.  The  clay  associated  with  lignite  often  contains  well  defined 
leaf  and  plant  impressions. 

GEOLOGICAL  AGE  OF  LIGNITE, 

It  has  already  been  said  that  lignite  is  of  a later  geological  age 
than  true  coal.  The  true  coals,  that  is  anthracite  and  bituminous 
coal,  belong  principally  to  the  Carboniferous  Age  (Paleozoic  Era). 
Coal  is  also  found  in  the  Triassic  and  the  Jurassic  periods  (Mesozoic 
Era).  The  black  lignites  or  subbituminous  coals  of  Colorado,  New 
Mexico  and  Wyoming,  and  the  brown  lignites  of  North  Dakota  are 
found  in  the  Cretaceous  (late  Mesozoic).  The  brown  lignites  of  Texas 
belong  to  the  Tertiary  (Cenozoic  Era).  By  far  the  greater  part  of 
the  brown  lignites  of  Mississippi,  Alabama  and  Tennessee  belong  also 
to  the  Tertiary;  some  deposits,  however,  are  found  in  the  Cretaceous. 


LIGNITE  OF  MISSISSIPPI, 


FIELD  WORK* 

The  field  work  for  this  report  was  begun  on  the  15th  of  June  and 
finished  on  the  5th  of  September,  1906.  During  this  time  I visited 
all  the  localities  in  the  State  in  which  lignite  had  been  reported  to 
exist  and  brought  to  light  many  outcrops  of  which  no  written  record 
existed.  I examined  in  all  about  two  hundred  outcrops  of  lignite 
and  took  samples  of  fifty  of  the  most  promising  of  these.  While  I 
tried  to  visit  every  county  and  locality  in  which  lignite  was  thought 
to  exist,  I found  it  impossible  during  the  one  summer  at  my  command 
to  inspect  every  individual  outcrop  of  lignite  reported  to  me  in  some 
of  the  districts  where  such  outcrops  are  of  frequent  occurrence.  In 
such  cases  I tried  always  to  choose  the  best  or  most  representative 
deposits  for  examination. 

Very  few  of  these  deposits  have  ever  been  worked  or  opened  with 
a view  to  commercial  use.  Many  occur  in  or  near  the  bottom  of  creeks 
and  ravines  and  others  in  private  springs.  Hence  in  many  instances 
it  was  found  impossible  to  make  as  complete  an  examination  as  was 
desirable  without  the  expenditure  of  more  time  and  money  than  were 
at  my  disposal.  It  resulted  in  many  cases  that  instead  of  taking 
samples  throughout  the  vertical  extent  of  the  beds  I was  forced  to 
take  them  from  the  top  or  the  first  ten  or  twelve  inches  of  the  bed, 
or  from  the  most  accessible  point.  Nor  was  I always  able  to  measure 
the  thickness  of  the  strata,  for  the  frequent  presence  of  iron  pyrite 
in  the  lignite  made  it  impossible  to  use  the  extension  auger  in  many 
instances. 


THE  LIGNITE  AREA  OF  MISSISSIPPI. 

The  lignite  area  of  Mississippi  is  that  part  of  the  State  lying  north 
of  a line  through  Meridian,  Jackson  and  Vicksburg,  and  east  of  the 
“Bluff.”  A few  outcrops  of  lignite  are  found  south  of  this  limit,  but 
they  belong  to  later  geological  formations  and  are  relatively  infrequent 
and  unimportant.  The  Bluff  here  mentioned  is  part  of  that  line  of 
bluff  extending  from  Kentucky  to  Louisiana  east  of  the  Mississippi 


TOPOGRAPHY. 


15 


River  and  parallel  with  it.  Between  Memphis  and  Vicksburg  the 
river  is  deflected  from  the  Bluff,  leaving  between  the  river  and  the 
bluff  the  low  level  country  known  as  the  “Delta.”  No  lignite  is  found 
west  of  this  line  of  Bluff  in  Mississippi. 

The  lignite  area  on  the  map  published  by  the  United  States 
Geological  Survey  in  the  first  volume  of  the  Report  on  the  Coal-test- 
ing Plant  of  St.  Louis  (P.P.  No.  48)  should  be  greatly  extended — on 
the  west  to  the  line  of  the  bluff,  and  on  the  north  far  into  Tennessee. 

Under  the  heads  of  Geological  Formations,  Distribution  in  Missis- 
sippi, and  List  of  Localities,  more  detailed  information  will  be  given 
on  the  subject  of  the  lignite  area  in  Mississippi. 

TOPOGRAPHY  OF  THE  LIGNITE  AREA. 

The  north-central  area  of  the  State,  in  which  the  lignite  occurs,  is 
characterized  by  a rough,  hilly  surface  frequently  cut  by  deep  gullies. 
Along  the  larger  streams  the  process  of  erosion  has  gone  on  until  the 
valleys  are  several  miles  wide.  A large  part  of  the  material  on  the 
surface  or  near  the  surface  being  sand,  erosion  is  still  going  on  rapidly 
in  the  hills  and  uplands.  Much  of  the  sand  and  earth  thus  washed 
down  is  redeposited  along  the  streams  and  valleys.  Consequently  the 
surface  of  the  country  is  changing  constantly  and  rapidly.  The 
elevation  of  the  territory  is  nowhere  great.  The  following  railroad 
elevations,  taken  from  Gannett’s  “Dictionary  of  Altitudes,”  will 
indicate  the  general  range: 

Railroad  Elevations. 

Feet. 

1 . Lexington 209 

2.  West 290 

3.  Louisville 536 

4.  Ackerman 522 

5.  Coffeeville 241 

6.  Oxford 458 

7.  Holly  Springs 602 

8.  Olive  Branch 387 

9.  Hernando 391 

10.  Sardis 384 


Holly  Springs  is  the  only  railroad  town  in  the  State  with  an  eleva- 
tion above  600  feet.  A point  on  the  Illinois  Central  Railroad  about 
1£  miles  south  of  Holly  Springs  (between  mile  posts  544  and  545)  has 


16 


LIGNITE. 


an  elevation  of  619  feet-;  this  is  the  highest  railroad  point  in  the  State. 
It  is  therefore  doubtful  if  there  are  many  hi  11 -tops  which  exceed  700 
feet.  On  the  other  hand  the  Delta  lying  west  of  the  lignitic  area  and 
through  which  much  of  the  latter  is  drained  has  an  average  elevation 
of  about  150  feet;  so  that  200  feet  may  be  taken  as  approximately 
the  lower  altitude  limit  of  the  lignitic  area.  Thus  it  is  seen  that  the 
elevation  of  this  territory  ranges  between  200  and  650  or  700  feet,  a 
range  which  is  not  very  great,  and  yet  which  is  sufficient  to  give  con- 
siderable inequality  and  diversity  to  the  landscape.  In  fact,  the 
character  of  the  two  upper  geological  strata  are  such  that  the  resulting 
topography  may  in  many  places  be  called  rugged. 


THE  GEOLOGICAL  FORMATIONS  OF  MISSISSIPPI. 

The  nomenclature  of  the  geological  formations  of  Mississippi,  as 
adopted  by  the  present  geological  survey,  is  as  follows: 


Cenozoic. 


Mesozoic , 


Paleozoic. 


TABLE  3. 

THE  GEOLOGICAL  FORMATIONS  OF  MISSISSIPPI. 


f Quartemary. 


f River  alluvium. 
I Yellow  loam. 

Loess. 

Port  Hudson. 
Lafayette. 

Miocene  (?)....  Grand  Gulf. 

Miocene Pascagoula. 

Oligocene Vicksburg. 


Tertiary. 


f Eocene. 


Cretaceous. 


(Jackson. 

f Lisbon  and  undifferen- 

Claibome <j  tiated  Claiborne. 

[ Tallahatta  buhrstone. 

Wilcox. 


r 

Midway | 

f Ripley. 

I Selma  Chalk. 

| Eutaw. 

[ Tuscaloosa. 


Porter’s  Creek. 
Clayton. 


Carboniferous . 
Devonian 


Chester. 

St.  Louis. 
Tullahoma. 
New  Scotland. 


It  will  be  seen  from  this  table  that  the  Archaean  rocks  are  not 
represented  in  Mississippi,  and  by  consulting  the  accompanying  map 
it  will  appear  that  only  a very  small  portion  of  the  State  belongs  to 


GEOLOGICAL  FORMATIONS 


17 


the  Paleozoic  age,  the  Devonian  and  Carboniferous  being  found  only 
in  a limited  territory  in  the  northeastern  comer  of  the  State.  West 
of  this  is  a broader  strip  extending  north  and  south  which  is  Mesozoic 
in  time,  the  Cretaceous.  About  four-fifths  of  the  State,  however, 
belong  to  Cenozoic  time,  the  Tertiary  and  Quartemary  eras. 

The  great  lignite-bearing  series  is  that  named  by  Dr.  Hilgard  the 
“Northern  Lignitic,”  now  known  in  the  Government  Survey  and  the 
State  Survey  of  Mississippi  as  the  Wilcox.  This  formation  occurs  in 
the  Eocene  period  of  the  Tertiary. 

Before  describing  in  detail,  however,  the  Wilcox  formation,  and 
other  less  important  lignite-bearing  series,  it  is  necessary  to  say  a 
few  words  about  the  general  geological  conditions  in  that  part  of 
Mississippi  under  discussion  in  this  paper. 

In  the  northern  half  of  the  State  the  strata  dip  westward  or  south- 
westward.  On  top  of  the  older  formations  have  been  deposited  in 
Quartemary  times  two  much  more  recent  formations,  the  Lafayette 
and  the  Columbia  (or  yellow  loam).  The  following  theoretical 
diagrams  will  help  to  make  this  matter  clear: 

Section  of  the  Strata  Exposed  in  the  Lignite  Area  of  Mississippi. 


Fig.  2. 


Fig.  3. 


18 


LIGNITE. 


Figure  1 represents  the  older  formations  with  an  exaggerated  dip 
toward  the  west  and  a surface  unaffected  by  erosion.  Figure  2 
represents  the  same  after  the  rains  and  streams  have  cut  the  surface 
into  hills  and  valleys.  Figure  3 represents  the  same  at  a still  later 
period  after  the  layer  of  sand  and  gravel  known  as  Lafayette  has  been 
deposited  unconformably  upon  the  older  formations  following  the 
surface  of  the  hills  and  valleys  and  after  a still  later  sheet  of  yellow  or 
brown  loam  known  as  Columbia  has  been  deposited  upon  the  Lafayette. 

The  name  Lafayette,  from  Lafayette  County,  Mississippi,  was 
agreed  upon  in  1891  for  the  older  name  of  Orange  Sand  used  by 
Dr.  Safford  and  Dr.  Hilgard.  But  the  name  Orange  Sand,  and  its 
equivalents,  Lagrange  and  Lafayette,  as  used  by  Safford,  Hilgard, 
McGee  and  Mabry,  seems  to  include  two  entirely  distinct  formations, 
an  upper  thin  bed  of  unstratified  sand  belonging  to  the  Quaternary  and 
a lower  thicker  formation  consisting  of  stratified  sand  and  other 
material  belonging  to  the  Tertiary.  Mabry,  in  his  paper  on  the 
Brown  or  Yellow  Loam  of  North  Mississippi,  had,  however,  begun  to 
“doubt  the  unity  of  the  Lafayette.”  The  present  writer  will  use 
the  term  Lafayette  to  apply  only  to  the  upper  generally  unstratified 
member,  considering  the  lower  stratified  sands  and  clays  as  Wilcox  or 
other  formations  according  to  location.  This  will  account  for  the  dis- 
crepancy in  thickness  assigned  to  the  Lafayette  by  the  older  writers 
and  those  of  the  present  survey;  Hilgard  and  Mabry  speak  of  the 
thickness  of  the  Orange  Sand  or  Lafayette  at  Oxford,  for  example, 
as  about  200  feet ; I put  it  in  the  present  paper  at  2 to  8 feet,  consider- 
ing the  stratified  material  below  this  as  Wilcox.  I have  recently 
found  strong  evidence  of  the  correctness  of  this  view  here  in  Lafayette 
County,  the  type  locality  of  the  Lafayette  formation  (as  well  as  in 
many  other  places).  Professor  Mabry  says:  “Near  Oxford,  Miss., 
where  the  Lafayette  is  typically  developed,  it  attains  a maximum 
thickness  of  something  like  200  feet.  But  towards  the  east  it  soon 
thins  out,  exposures  of  the  Lignitic  being  quite  common  within  8 or 
10  miles  of  Oxford.”  Now  it  happens  that  I have  discovered  a bed 
of  lignite  lying  only  1 mile  east  of  the  courthouse  at  Oxford.  The 
combined  thickness  of  the  material  overlying  the  Wilcox  at  this  point 
is  not  more  than  20  or  25  feet. 

The  name  Lafayette,  then,  as  used  in  this  paper,  will  apply  only  to 
that  layer  of  sand,  or  sand  and  gravel,  usually  from  5 to  15  feet  thick, 


GEOLOGICAL  FORMATIONS. 


19 


rarely  exceeding  40  or  50  feet  thick,  which  in  Quaternary  times  has 
been  deposited  unconformably  upon  the  older  formations  following 
the  hills  and  slopes  according  to  the  conformation  reached  about  the 
close  of  the  Tertiary  period.  This  sheet  of  sand,  accompanied  in 
some  places  by  gravel,  covers  a large  part  of  the  State. 

The  Columbia  formation  is  a deposit  of  from  3 to  15  or  20  feet  of 
brown  or  yellow  loam  overlying  in  many  places  the  sand  and  pebbles 
of  the  Lafayette  and  forming  the  topmost  and  most  recent  deposit 
in  upland  regions.  It  is  usually  unstratified,  n on-calcareous,  and 
non-fossiliferous. 

Here  should  be  mentioned  also,  because  of  its  association  with  the 
lignitic  area,  the  Bluff  loess.  This  is  a fine  gray  or  buff-colored  cal- 
careous deposit  occurring  above  the  Lafayette  and  containing  calca- 
reous concretions  and  snail  shells  and  other  land  and  fresh-water 
fossils.  It  is  a narrow  belt  from  6 to  15  or  20  miles  wide  extending 
along  the  Bluff  the  whole  length  of  the  State,  and  in  its  typical  form 
is  easily  recognized  by  the  characteristics  just  given  and  its  tendency 
to  stand  in  vertical  walls  along  roads  and  gullies.  Whether  the  Bluff 
loess  is  a separate  and  distinct  formation  as  held  by  Hilgard,  or  merely 
a peculiar  manifestation  of  the  Columbia  (yellow  loam)  as  main- 
tained by  some  later  writers,  will  not  be  discussed  in  this  report.  For 
convenience,  the  name  Columbia  will  be  limited  in  this  paper  to  the 
brown  or  yellow  loam  and  the  name  Loess  or  Bluff  Loess  used  for 
the  narrow  belt  or  calcareous  snail-bearing  silt  along  the  Bluff. 

THE  WILCOX. 

The  Wilcox  is  the  great  lignite-bearing  formation  in  Mississippi. 
It  belongs  to  the  Eocene  period  of  the  Tertiary  era.  This  formation 
was  called  by  Hilgard  the  Northern  Lignitic,  and  was  included  by 
Safford  of  Tennessee  in  his  LaGrange  or  Orange  Sand  group  and  his 
Bluff  Lignite.  The  name  Lagrange  is  continued  by  L.  C.  Glenn  in  his 
recent  paper  on  the  “Underground  Waters  of  Tennessee  and  Kentucky 
West  of  Tennessee  River.”* 

The  Wilcox  or  Lagrange  is  the  broadest  in  extent  and  the  thickest 
in  depth  of  all  the  formations  within  the  territory  under  discussion  in 
this  report,  excepting  always,  of  course,  so  far  as  extent  is  concerned 
the  two  surface  formations,  the  Columbia  and  the  Lafayette.  Suffic- 


*U.  S.  Geol.  Survey,  W.  S.  and  I.  Paper  No.  164,  1906. 


20 


LIGNITE. 


ient  data  for  the  determination  of  the  exact  thickness  do  not  as  yet 
exist,  but  it  is  certain  that  it  is  at  least  several  hundred  feet  thick, 
not  improbably  reaching  at  places  the  depth  of  600  to  1,000  feet. 

The  materials  of  this  formation  consist  principally  of  stratified 
clays,  sands  and  lignite  or  lignitic  earth.  The  clays  are  usually  white, 
whitish,  cream,  pink,  chocolate,  or  light  blue  in  color,  and  at  a distance 
often  give  the  appearance  of  chalk  or  sand  banks.  Frequently  the 
clays  are  stained  brown  or  black  with  lignitic  or  carbonaceous  matter. 
Many  of  these  clays  are  quite  pure,  others  are  very  sandy  in  nature. 
Often  they  contain  well  defined  Tertiary  leaf  impressions.  In  large 
masses  the  fracture  is  frequently  conchoidal.  The  sands  are  usually 
stratified  and  varied  in  color,  red,  yellow  and  orange  being  the  pre- 
vailing types.  The  lignite  will  be  mentioned  at  greater  length  under 
its  proper  head. 

The  character  of  the  better  Wilcox  clays  may  be  judged  from  the 
following  analyses  made  by  Dr.  W.  F.  Hand,  and  recorded  in  Logan’s 
“Clays  of  Mississippi,”  1905,  and  Crider’s  “Geology  and  Mineral 
Resources  of  Mississippi,”  1906. 


TABLE  4. 

ANALYSES  OF  WILCOX  CLAYS. 
(By  Dr.  W.  F.  Hand.) 


Constituents 

No.  1 

No.  2 

No.  3 

Silica  (Si02) 

67.70 

57.79 

59.82 

Alumina  (AI2O3) 

19.69 

26.03  . 

27.19 

Ferric  oxide  (Fe20$) 

3.04 

2.98 

1.26 

Lime  (CaO) 

1.06 

.44 

.49 

Magnesia  (MgO) 

.58 

.10 

.37 

Sulphur  trioxide  (SO3) 

.19 

.24 

.31 

Moisture  (H20) 

.94 

1.14 

1.47 

Loss  on  ignition 

6.64 

9.11 

9.24 

Total 

99.84  • 

97.83 

100.15 

No.  1 is  the  Holly  Springs  Stoneware  Company’s  clay;  No.  2 is 
from  Oxford  near  the  negro  schoolhouse;  No.  3 is  the  Cumberland 
Stoneware  clay  of  Webster  County. 

Typical  exposures  of  the  Wilcox  (or  Lagrange)  may  be  seen  at 
Holly  Springs,  Oxford,  Pittsboro,  Bellefontaine,  Chester,  Louisville, 
Dekalb  and  Lockhart. 


GEOLOGICAL  FORMATIONS. 


21 


Like  the  other  formations  within  the  area  discussed  in  this  report, 
the  Wilcox  is  generally  overlain  by  the  Lafayette  and  the  Columbia. 
The  following  sections  give  an  idea  of  the  surface  appearance  within 
the  Wilcox  area,  it  being  understood  that  in  no  case  is  the  whole  of 
the  Wilcox  exposed. 


Section  at  Oxford  near  the  Railroad  Bridge.  Feet 

Columbia,  loam 8-12 

Lafayette,  unstratified  orange  sand 2-5 

Wilcox,  strat.  white  and  cream  sand  and  clay 28 


A short  distance  south  of  the  bridge  the  Columbia  rests  almost 
directly  upon  the  Wilcox.  At  other  places  in  Oxford  the  Lafayette  is 
better  developed  than  at  the  railroad  bridgp. 

Section  from  Hill  Just  West  of  Grenada.  (Crider,  p.  28.) 

Feet 


Yellow  loam  and  Lafayette  (capping  hill) x 

(Impure  laminated  gray  clay 50 

Green  sands  with  thin  layers  of  clay 50 

Darker  colored  laminated  clays 50 

Section  in  I.  C.  R.  R.  Cut  1£  Miles  East  of  Ackerman. 

(Taken  on  north  side  at  deepest  part.)  Feet 

Columbia 9 

Lafayette  sand 16 

( Stratified  clay  and  laminated  shale 18 

Wilcox  1 Lignitic  shale  and  clay % 

[ Stratified  clay,  etc 10 


OTHER  LIGNITE-BEARING  FORMATIONS. 

Besides  the  Wilcox  formation  other  geological  formations  in  Missis- 
sippi contain  lignite  to  some  extent.  Among  the  older  formations  the- 
Tuscaloosa  in  the  northeastern  part  of  the  State  contains  a number 
of  beds,  for  instance  those  in  Itawamba  County.  Among  the  forma- 
tions more  recent  than  the  Wilcox  (or  Lagrange)  the  Claiborne  and 
the  Grand  Gulf  are  known  to  contain  carbonaceous  deposits,  and  such 
deposits  are  at  least  associated  with  the  Jackson  and  Vicksburg  for- 
mations if  not  actually  contained  in  them.  The  lignite  beds  of 
Holmes  County,  now  assigned  to  the  Claiborne,  are  among  the  best 
in  the  State;  here  the  beds  are  numerous  and  attain  a thickness  as 
great  as  any  in  Mississippi. 


22 


LIGNITE. 


- THE  GEOLOGICAL  MAP. 

A geological  map  accompanies  this  report.  The  Wilcox,  the  great 
lignite-bearing  formation,  is  shown  by  the  broad  area  with  light 
brown  hachures.  The  Claiborne  formations,  the  Lisbon  and  the  Talla- 
hatta  buhrstone,  are  shown  respectively  by  the  area  with  darker 
brown  hachures  and  that  with  brown  dots.  The  Tuscaloosa  in  the 
northeastern  comer  of  the  State,  also  a lignite-bearing  formation,  is 
represented  by  the  field  with  green  dots.  The  location  of  lignite  beds 
is  shown  on  this  map  by  blue  crosses.  No  attempt  has  been  made  to 
indicate  the  extent  of  the  individual  beds. 

MODE  OF  OCCURRENCE  OF  LIGNITE. 

As  there  are  generally  two  surface  formations,  the  Columbia  and 
the  Lafayette,  overlying  the  lignite-bearing  formation,  it  rarely  hap- 
pens that  lignite  appears  at  the  surface  on  level  ground.  This  can 
occur  only  where  the  two  upper  formations  have  been  eroded  and 
the  lignite  occupies  the  topmost  member  of  the  Wilcox  or  other 
lignite-bearing  formation.  More  generally  lignite  is  exposed  in  gullies 
or  ravines  and  in  the  beds  of  streams.  It  is,  therefore,  to  be  sought 
at  the  foot  of  hills  or  near  their  bases  and  in  cuts  and  ravines  rather 
than  on  the  hill-tops.  Springs  often  form  a good  index  to  its  outcrop, 
for  both  lignite  and  the  clays  associated  with  it  are  impervious  to 
water;  hence  the  surface  waters  which  find  their  way  readily  through 
the  Lafayette  sand  are  deflected  when  they  strike  the  lignite  or  the 
associated  clay  and  flow  along  these  strata  till  they  find  an  outlet  at 
some  lower  level.  Lignite  is  frequently  stmck  in  digging  or  boring 
wells. 

The  materials  most  closely  associated  with  lignite  are  usually  the 
various  types  of  sands  and  clays.  Sands  are  generally  found  at  no 
great  distance  above  the  lignite,  for  even  if  there  is  present  no  strati- 
fied sand  of  the  same  age  as  the  lignite,  it  will  not  be  very  far  up  to 
the  unstratified  Lafayette  sand.  Immediately  above  the  lignite, 
however,  is  frequently  found  a few  feet  of  clay.  No  stone  or  slate 
roofing  of  consequence  is  found  over  the  lignite  beds  of  Mississippi. 
It  sometimes  happens,  however,  that  the  last  inch  or  two  of  a sand 
layer  resting  directly  upon  a deposit  of  lignite  is  converted  into  ferru- 
ginous sandstone  by  a cement  of  iron  oxide  from  a flow  of  iron-impreg- 
nated water  arrested  in  its  downward  course  by  the  bed  of  lignite. 


MODE  OF  OCCURRENCE. 


23 


Immediately  below  the  lignite  is  usually  found  clay,  sometimes  of 
excellent  quality.  Not  infrequently  the  underlying  clay  is  deeply 
colored  with  lignitic  matter.  The  associated  sands  are  also  some- 
times carbonaceous  in  character. 

The  following  partial  sections  will  help  to  make  clear  the  character 
of  the  materials  immediately  associated  with  the  lignite  beds  of 
Mississippi : 

Section  at  Chester  Near  the  Jail.  (Sample  7.) 


Sandy  clay x 

Lignite 21  inches. 

Poor  lignite  or  lignitic  clay 9 inches. 

Clay x 

Section  1£  Miles  North  of  Dekalb.  (Sample  15.) 

Sand x 

Sandstone 2 inches. 

Lignite 27  inches. 

Lignitic  clay x 

Section  at  Shenoah  Hill  Near  Tchula.  (Sample  23.) 

Sand x 

Tough  clay * 2 feet. 

Lignite 4-5  feet. 

Section  Near  Shawnee , Benton  Co.  (Sample  29.) 

Sand.... 15  feet. 

White  to  bluish  clay 5 feet. 

Lignite 2\  feet. 

Section  at  Shelby  Creek  Church , Benton  Co.  (Sample  32.) 

Sand 8 feet. 

Yellow  clay 6 inches. 

Claystone 4 inches. 

Yellow  clay 3 feet. 

Lignite 1 foot. 

Section  at  Old  Wyatte , Lafayette  Co.  (Sample  37.) 

Unstratified  sand 32  feet. 

Stratified  sand 8 feet. 

Woody  lignite scarcely  1 foot. 

Stratified  sand 24  feet. 


Section  at  Camp  Springs  Near  Pittsboro.  (Sample  43.) 


Good  lignite 28  inches. 

Fossiliferous  clay 7 feet. 

Inferior  lignite 6 inches. 


24 


LIGNITE. 


THICKNESS  OF  BEDS. 

Dr.  Wilder,  in  a report  on  the  lignite  of  North  Dakota  (p.  12), 
1905,  mentions  one  bed  in  that  State  with  a thickness  of  40  feet, 
and  adds,  “three  beds  that  reach  a thickness  of  25  feet  are  known, 
while  beds  15  feet  thick  are  not  uncommon.”  Unfortunately  no  such 
thicknesses  as  these  can  be  reported  for  Mississippi.  Beds  beyond 
3 feet  in  thickness  are  not  very  common  and  those  beyond  5 feet  are 
very  unusual.  The  thickest  strata  which  the  present  writer  has 
been  able  to  find  are  the  following: 

Thickest  Lignite  Beds  in  Mississippi. 

(1)  “Burning  bed,”  near  Lexington,  Holmes  Co.  (Sample  No. 

21),  thickness  7^  to  8 feet. 

(2)  Shenoah  Hill,  Holmes  Co.,  thickness  5 to  6 feet. 

(3)  Coal  Bluff,  on  Pearl  River  (Sample  No.  18),  thickness 
somewhat  over  5 feet. 

It  should  be  said  that  the  thickness  of  some  of  the  lignite  beds 
has  not  been  determined,  and  that  other  beds  of  greater  thickness 
than  these  have  been  reported. 

Casual  observers  are  often  deceived  in  the  thickness  of  the  deposits 
owing  to  the  fact  that  the  associated  clay,  shale  and  sand  are  fre- 
quently highly  lignitic  in  character  and  dark  in  color,  and  hence 
are  readily  mistaken  for  lignite.  At  Coal  Bluff  on  Pearl  River,  for 
instance,  the  best  lignite  is  only  17  inches  thick,  and  the  total  thick- 
ness only  to  5J  feet,  yet,  owing  to  the  associated  material,  a person 
rowing  along  the  river  gets  the  impression  of  a solid  bedjof  8 feet  or 
more.  It  is,  therefore,  frequently  necessary  to  take  reported  thick- 
nesses with  a grain  of  allowance.  The  14,  16  and  20-foot  beds  of 
lignite  mentioned  by  Harper  (pp.  168,  199)  I have  not  been  able  to 
find. 

The  thicknesses  mentioned  in  this  report  are  usually  maximum 
thicknesses,  unless  something  to  the  contrary  is  indicated. 

UNCERTAINTY  OF  BEDS. 

The  persistence  of  the  beds,  both  as  to  thickness  and  as  to  lateral 
extent,  is  by  no  means  certain  among  the  Mississippi  lignites.  Beds 
change  in  thickness  with  remarkable  rapidity,  often  thinning  out  or 
even  disappearing  within  a few  yards.  A good  outcrop  on  one  side 


VARIATION  IN  QUALITY. 


25 


of  a hill  may  not  reappear  at  all  on  the  opposite  side  of  the  hill  a 
quarter  of  a. mile  away,  or  may  not  be  found  even  across  the  valley  or 
ravine  twenty  yards  distant.  That  uniformity  and  continuity  of 
stratum  so  desirable  for  mining  are  frequently  wanting.  In  the  rail- 
road cut  near  Top  ton,  Lauderdale  County,  for  instance,  a stratum  of 
poor  lignite  or  lignitic  shale  between  3.  and  4 feet  thick  practically  dis- 
appears in  both  directions  at  a distance  of  50  yards.  In  the  “burning 
bed”  in  Holmes  County  the  lignite  seems  to  thin  out  in  every  direction 
from  a point  where  it  is  about  8 feet  thick.  It  would  seem  that  in 
general  the  lignite  has  been  deposited  in  lenticular  masses  and  that 
the  diameter  of  the  lens  is  often  small. 

Those  seeking  to  develop  lignite  beds  should  not  base  their  calcu- 
lations on  one  limited  outcrop,  but  before  investing  much  money 
should  determine  the  lateral  extent  of  the  deposit  and  the  thickness 
at  various  places.  This  may  usually  be  done  by  boring,  and  in  some 
cases  by  digging  with  hand  tools.  In  boring  with  small  augers  care 
should  be  taken  not  to  mistake  the  pulverized  borings  of  shale  or 
lignitic  clay  for  those  of  lignite ; else  the  lignite  will  appear  to  be  thicker 
than  it  really  is,  and  the  whole  calculation  will  be  vitiated.  Having 
determined  roughly  the  area  of  the  lignite  bed  and  the  thickness  of 
the  deposit  at  several  places  *an  approximate  estimate  can  be  made 
of  the  quantity  of  the  fuel  present. 

VARIATION  IN  QUALITY. 

The  quality  of  the  lignite  differs  greatly  in  different  deposits, 
running  through  all  the  gradations  from  lignitic  shale  and  clay  to  a 
compact,  pure,  dark  brown  lignite.  In  some  places  it  is  difficult  to 
determine  whether  we  should  call  the  material  lignitic  clay  or  mucky 
lignite,  lignitic  shale  or  shaly  lignite.  In  some  beds  the  deposit  is 
moist  and  soft,  in  others  dry  and  firm.  In  some  beds  the  plant 
remains  are  abundant  and  wood  may  be  found  but  slightly  altered, 
in  others  the  material  is  completely  lignitized.  In  some  beds  much 
iron  pyrite  or  other  impurity  is  found,  in  others  very  little.  The 
chemical  composition,  as  will  be  seen  further  on,  varies  greatly  in 
different  beds.  Not  only  do  the  beds  differ  one  from  another  in 
quality,  but  there  will  often  be  found  great  difference  in  quality  within 
the  same  bed.  The  upper  part  of  a stratum  may  be  soft  and  mucky, 
while  the  lower  part  is  hard  and  compact.  The  upper  part  may  be 


26 


LIGNITE. 


comparatively  pure  and  good,  while  the  lower  part  may  contain  much 
clay  or  earth.  Part  of  a bed  may  be  completely  lignitized  while 
another  part  of  it  is  but  imperfectly  converted ; even  the  same  trunk 
may  be  partly  lignitized  and  partly  petrified.  The  bed  at  Coal  Bluff 
on  Pearl  River  shows  this  variation  in  quality ; at  one  place  the  par- 
tial section  is  as  follows: 

Section  of  Coal  Bluff , Pearl  River. 


Lignitic  shale 3 J feet. 

Solid  lignite 17  inches. 

Laminated  lignite 3 feet. 


This  variation  within  the  same  bed  is  shown  further  by  chemical 
analyses;  different  samples  often  showing  quite  different  results. 

SOME  COMMON  ERRORS. 

Several  popular  errors  exist  in  connection  with  the  occurrence  of 
lignite  One  of  these  is  that  “the  lignite  gets  better  further  under  the 
hill.”  There  is  no  reason  for  this  supposition  if  we  disregard  a few 
inches  of  weathered  lignite  on  the  exposed  surface.  Another  state- 
ment often  heard  is  that  “the  lignite  probably  gets  thicker  further 
under  the  hill.”  It  has  already  been  stated  that  the  lignite  deposits 
are  usually  lens-shaped ; a little  reflection  will  therefore  make  it  plain 
that  the  beds  may  get  thicker  or  may  get  thinner,  and  that  it  is  just 
as  likely  to  be  the  latter  as  the  former;  it  all  depends  on  where  the 
lens-shaped  mass  happens  to  be  first  pierced  or  eroded  away.  A third 
error  is  that  “under  the  lignite  one  will  find  real  coal  if  he  goes  deeper.” 
This  supposition  is  likewise  without  foundation  either  in  practice,  or 
in  theory.  In  not  a single  instance  in  Mississippi  has  coal  ever  been 
found  under  the  lignite.  In  fact,  the  presence  of  the  lignite  points 
to  the  absence  of  stone  coal,  for  lignite  is  of  a much  more  recent  geo- 
logical time  than  true  coal ; hence  if  true  coal  existed  at  the  same  place 
as  lignite  it  would  probably  be  so  far  below  the  surface  that  its  dis- 
covery would  be  improbable  and  its  utilization  impracticable.  The 
true  explanation  of  all  three  of  these  popular  misconceptions  lies  in 
Shakespeare’s  principle,  “the  wish  is  father  to  the  thought.” 

This  may  be  an  appropriate  occasion  to  notice  a question  frequently 
put  to  me  in  the  field:  “How  long  will  it  take  lignite  to  become  good 
coal?”  The  discussion  of  this  question  may  be  of  interest  to  the 


BURNING  BEDS. 


27 


scientist,  but  it  does  not  concern  the  land-owner  or  practical  miner 
from  a commercial  point  of  view.  The  rate  of  transformation  is  so 
slow  that  neither  our  children  nor  their  children’s  children  will  note 
any  appreciable  change.  From  a practical  point  of  view,  then,  the 
lignite  must  be  considered  as  lignite  and  not  as  a prospective  future 
coal. 

BURNING  BEDS. 

Beds  of  lignite  undoubtedly  catch  fire  and  bum  for  long  periods 
of  time.  Reports  of  such  beds  have  frequently  been  current  in 
Mississippi;  for  instance,  the  bed  on  Mr.  Black’s  land  near  Pleasant 
Hill,  De  Soto  County;  the  railroad  cut  near  Lockhart,  Lauderdale 
County ; the  bed  on  Mr.  Barron’s  land  in  Choctaw  County,  and  several 
strata  in  Holmes  County.  The  writer  of  this  report  found  only  one 
bed  actually  on  fire  during  his  investigation  in  the  summer  of  1906, 
the  bed  6 miles  southwest  of  Lexington,  Holmes  County,  which  will 
be  described  further  on  in  this  report.  Wilder,  writing  of  North 
Dakota  (p.  52),  says:  “Evidence  is  at  hand  at  pearly  every  point 
within  the  lignite  area  which  shows  that  great  quantities  of  this 
valuable  fuel  have  been  destroyed  by  fire.  Thick  masses  of  burned 
clay,  red,  brown,  white,  or  vitrified  to  a dark  glassy  slag,  cap  many 
of  the  low  buttes,  or  lie  in  confused  heaps  on  the  slopes.  From 
Fry  burg  to  Medora  the  Northern  Pacific  Railway  passes  through  a 
region  in  which  ‘scoria,’  as  the  burned  clay  is  called,  is  particularly 
abundant.  It  makes  an  admirable  railroad  ballast.” 


LIST  OF  LOCALITIES  BY  COUNTIES* 


DE  SOTO  COUNTY* 

At  Pleasant  Hill,  5 or  6 miles  south  of  the  Tennessee  line,  there  is 
a deposit  of  lignite  at  the  church  spring,  the  thickness  of  which  I 
did  not  determine.  In  a well  not  far  away  it  is  reported  to  be  4 feet 
thick.  In  the  ravine  south  of  the  church-yard  are  large  pieces  of 
thin  sheets  of  lignite,  the  source  of  which  could  not  be  traced.  Two 
miles  west  of  Pleasant  Hill,  on  Mr.  P.  M.  Black’sland,  there  is  a bank 
in  which  lignite  is  said  to  have  burnt  for  several  months.  This  bank 
is  grown  up  and  covered  over  now,  so  that  considerable  digging  failed 
to  discover  the  bed  of  lignite ; a number  of  pieces  of  lignitic  clay  and 
a few  pieces  of  clayey  lignite  were  thrown  up  however.  On  the  creek 
on  the  Williamson  place  J mile  north  of  this  bank  is  an  outcrop  of 
2 feet  (probably  not  all  exposed)  of  poor  lignite. 

MARSHALL  COUNTY* 

The  present  writer  found  no  good  lignite  in  his  brief  trip  across 
the  southern  part  of  Marshall  County,  although  he  heard  reports  of 
lignite  in  wells.  On  the  Malone  place,  1 mile  east  of  Lawshill,  there 
is  a deposit  of  5J  feet  of  very  poor  lignite,  better  called  lignitic  sand 
and  earth,  with  abundant  particles  of  mica  and  some  iron  pyrites. 
A.  F.  Crider  (p.  62)  reports  a thin  band  of  lignite  in  the  Allison  Stone- 
ware clay  pit  east  of  Holly  Springs.  Harper  (p.  242) ’says  lignite  is 
found  “in  Marshall  County,  especially  in  the  southern  part,  on  the 
Tallahatchie  River.” 

BENTON  COUNTY. 

On  Mr.  W.  E.  Hoover’s  land,  Sec.  2 (?),  T.  4,  R.  1 W.,  not  far  from 
Shawnee,  there  is  a bed  of  lignite  in  the  bottom  of  Royston’s  Creek. 
The  section  is  as  follows: 


Section  on  W . E.  Hoover's  Land , Near  Shawnee.  Feet 

Sand 15 

White  to  bluish  clay 5 

Lignite 2\ 


This  lignite  blocks  out  well,  and  seems  good.  Some  of  it  contains 
plant  impressions.  I noticed  no  iron  pyrites.  The  sample  (No.  29) 


BENTON  AND  TIPPAH  COUNTIES. 


29 


did  not  reach  the  laboratory.  Wailes  (P.  239)  mentions  a deposit 
not  far  from  here  on  Snow  Creek,  Sec.  7,  T.  4,  R.  1 W.,  7 miles  south 
of  Salem. 

Two  miles  east  of  Floyd  lignite  outcrops  in  Mr.  John  C.  Orman’s 
house  spring.  I could  not  determine  the  thickness  without  disturbing 
the  spring,  but  about  14  inches  are  exposed.  The  lignite  blocks  out 
well,  but  with  some  tendency  to  flake.  It  has  some  sand  in  it,  but  I 
saw  no  pyrites  in  the  small  amount  examined.  The  analysis  shows 
this  lignite  to  be  unusually  high  in  volatile  matter,  but  relatively  low 
in  fixed  carbon.  Above  the  lignite  is  a thin  sheet  of  sandstone. 
Water  flows  out  just  above  the  lignite.  (Sample  No.  30.) 

On  Mr.  J.  D.  Rutledge’s  land,  Sec.  33,  T.  3,  R.  2 E.,  at  an  old  spring 
in  the  horse-lot,  is  a stratum  of  lignite  now  covered  by  sand.  I 
examined  only  the  top  of  the  deposit,  which  seemed  firm  but  con- 
tained too  much  sand  and  iron  pyrites.  (Sample  No.  31.)  The 
analysis  shows  48  per  cent  of  ash,  which  would  indicate  that  if  all 
the  bed  is  like  the  top  it  has  no  fuel  value. 

At  Shelby  Creek  Church  (Geddy’s  Chapel),  on  the  old  Tolbert 
place,  about  J of  a mile  from  the  preceding  and  near  the  Tippah  County 
line,  there  is  an  outcrop  about  two-thirds  of  the  way  down  the  ravine. 
Thickness  1 foot.  This  flakes  rather  than  blocks  out,  and  has  a great 
many  strips  of  earthy  matter  in  it.  (Sample  No.  32.)  Analysis 
yields  over  63  per  cent  of  ash  or  inert  matter,  which  shows  the  lignite 
to  be  worthless  for  fuel  purposes. 

Lignite  is  reported  deeper  down  in  the  gulch.  Lignite  is  also 
reported  at  various  other  places  in  the  county,  which  I had  not  the 
time  to  visit.  Some  of  these  are  as  follows: 

Five  miles  north  of  Ashland  on  Mr.  H.  R.  Littleton’s  place,  1 mile 
from  Wolf  River,  4 feet  thick.  At  Glenn  mill,  5 miles  east  of  Ashland, 
probably  2£  feet  thick,  good  quality.  One  mile  south  of  Pinegrove, 
on  Mr.  Rennick’s  place ; was  used  by  a blacksmith  when  mixed  with 
charcoal.  On  Mr.  West’s  place,  2 miles  northwest  of  Pinegrove. 

TIPPAH  COUNTY. 

There  are  no  doubt  lignites  in  Tippah  County,  although  I did  not 
find  them,  owing  to  lack  of  time  and  to  incompetent  guides.  They 
are  reported  about  the  headwaters  of  Tippah.  Hilgard  (p.  160) 
reports  it  on  ’Squire  Street’s  land,  Sec.  29,  T.  3,  R.  33  E.,  in  a ravine 


30 


LIGNITE. 


between  two  steep  hillsides,  although  he  apparently  did  not  see  it, 
as  he  speaks  of  having  no  opportunity  of  observing  the  quality. 
Lignite  is  also  reported  on  Shelby  Creek,  2 miles  south  of  Finger,  and 
on  the  Hensley  place  near  the  latter. 

TATE  COUNTY* 

At  Sarah  on  the  Coldwater  River  there  is  an  outcrop  of  lignite 
in  the  railroad  cut.  The  stratum  here  is  not  very  thick  and  the  fuel 
weathers  and  crumbles  to  pieces.  One  hundred  yards  further  from  the 
station  in  the  ravine  east  of  the  railroad  is  a good  exposure  of  lignite, 
the  thickness  of  which  was  not  determined.  Mr.  Brown,  the  owner 
of  the  land,  says  that  this  was  once  exposed  12  feet  and  that  there  was 
still  lignite  below.  On  the  hill  above  he  says  they  bored  into  lignite 
respectively  7 feet,  5 feet  and  8 feet,  without  passing  through  the 
bed.  Some  of  this  lignite  seems  fair  in  quality,  except  that  it  contains 
iron  pyrites  and  earthy  matter.  (Sample  No.  27.)  Chemical  analysis 
shows  too  little  fixed  carbon  and  too  much  ash,  resulting  in  a heating 
capacity  of  only  8,022  B.  T.  U.  Lignite  is  also  reported  on  Mrs, 
Johnson’s  place,' near  Sarah. 

PANOLA  COUNTY. 

Panola  County  contains  a lignite  center  in  the  vicinity  of  Tocowa. 
In  a ravine  a short  distance  behind  the  hotel  at  Tocowa,  Sec.  8,  T.  10, 
R.  8 W.,  is  a bed  of  solid  lignite  16  inches  thick.  In  color  it  is  brown 
with  a slight  tendency  to  red  on  the  outside.  (Specimen  No.  25.) 
This  contains  very  little  sulphur  but  leaves  nearly  20  per  cent  of 
ash. 

Down  the  valley,  f of  a mile  or  1 mile  further,  there  is  a stratum 
of  excellent  lignite  in  the  bed  of  a small  bluff  stream,  thickness  prob- 
ably 17  to  19  inches,  color  dark  brown,  approaching  black.  (Sample 
No.  2.)  This  is  superior  to  the  stratum  near  the  hotel,  containing 
less  than  one-third  of  the  amount  of  ash  and  much  more  combustible 
matter.  It  has  9,930  heat  units  per  pound  as  compared  with  8,471 
in  the  hotel  sample.  Other  beds  are  reported  in  the  vicinity  of  Tocowa 
Springs. 

At  Nirvana,  2 miles  east  of  Tocowa,  Sec.  10,  T.  10,  R.  8 W.,  there 
is  in  Mr.  S.  E.  Anderson’s  field  a bed  of  firm  solid  lignite  in  the  bottom 


LAFAYETTE  COUNTY. 


31 


of  a wash.  A thickness  of  only  12  inches  is  exposed,  but  the  sand 
has  covered  the  bottom  and  I did  not  learn  the  full  thickness. 

On  the  Sam  Darby  place  in  the  same  section,  about  1 mile  from 
Nirvana,  there  is  a stratum  of  lignite  in  the  bed  of  a ditch  immediately 
below  the  gravel.  This  lignite  seems  firm  and  good,  resembling  that 
at  Tocowa  and  Nirvana.  The  sample,  No.  26,  never  reached  the 
laboratory.  Near  here  the  remains  of  an  opening  said  to  have  been 
made  for  lignite  about  1869  are  still  visible.  It  is  said  that  the 
lignite  found  in  this  bed  would  bum. 

It  was  somewhere  near  Tocowa  that  Harper  (p.  199)  reported  a 
bed  of  lignite  “at  least  16  feet  thick,  and  perhaps  much  thicker  . . . 
an  inexhaustible  quantity  of  it.”  I could  get  no  trace  or  rumor  of 
such  a deposit. 

LAFAYETTE  COUNTY. 

Lafayette  is  one  of  the  richest  counties  in  lignite  in  the  State. 
There  are  two  lignitic  belts  trending  east  and  west,  the  northern, 
along  the  Tallahatchie  River,  the  southern  and  more  important  along 
the  Yocona  River. 

Under  the  site  of  the  old  town  of  Wyatte  on  the  north  bank  of 
the  Tallahatchie,  a town  once  important  but  of  which  not  a single 
house  now  remains,  runs  a thin  stratum  of  poor  lignite  and  imper- 
fectly converted  vegetable  matter.  This  bed  scarcely  reaches  1 foot 
in  thickness.  (Sample  No.  37.)  Analysis  shows  over  39  per  cent 
of  ash. 

Further  up  the  river,  about  3 miles  above  the  Illinois  Central  Rail- 
road bridge,  there  is  an  outcrop  of  lignite  18  inches  thick  on  Mr.  Tid- 
well’s land  in  the  south  bank  of  the  river  just  above  water  level. 
This  lignite  blocks  out  in  large  lumps  but  has  much  sand  in  it ; when 
dry  it  is  variegated  with  bands  of  earthy  matter.  There  is  a stratum 
of  sandstone  2 inches  thick  above  this  bed  and  the  slope  of  the  ground 
back  from  the  river  is  gentle.  (Sample  No.  34.)  The  analysis  shows 
45  per  cent  of  ash,  too  much  for  the  lignite  to  be  of  any  value. 

About  J of  a mile  south  of  the  last  mentioned  bed  near  Mr.  E.  A. 
Billingsley’s  shop  on  the  Tidwell  land,  3£  miles  east  of  Abbeville, 
there  is  a bed  of  lignite  which  abounds  in  streaks  of  sand  and  in  iron 
pyrites.  I could  not  get  through  it  with  the  auger  because  of  the 
latter.  Sand  can  be  shaken  from  dry  specimens  of  this  lignite  in 


32 


LIGNITE. 


great  quantities.  The  top  is  very  impure;  deeper  down  the  quality 
seemed  better.  The  analysis  of  a sample  from  near  the  top  shows 
over  49  per  cent  of  ash. 

About  1 mile  west  of  Caswell  postofhce,  on  Mr.  Jesse  Barry’s  land, 
in  the  bed  of  a stream  right  on  the  Abbeville  and  Pontotoc  road,  is  a 
stratum  of  lignite  remarkable  in  the  number  of  forms  it  assumes.  In 
some  places  it  is  merely  lignitic  earth,  then  there  are  all  varieties 
up  to  firm  good  lignite.  In  some  places  the  woody  structure  is 
retained.  One  piece  of  wood  occurring  under  good  lignite  is  scarcely 
altered  from  its  original  condition.  Another  log  is  partly  lignitized 
and  partly  petrified.  This  stratum  extends  up  the  nearly  dry  bed 
of  the  stream  a distance  of  100  yards  or  more;  the  ground  is  level 
on  one  side  and  the  hill  is  very  gentle  on  the  other.  Thickness  21 
inches  where  bored.  (Specimen  No.  35.)  The  analysis  of  a sample 
including  several  different  types  from  this  bed  shows  an  inferior 
lignite.  Analysis  from  selected  samples  would  no  do.ubt  show  better 
results. 

It  is  thus  seen  that  the  lignites  of  the  northern  belt  of  Lafayette 
County  are  not  very  promising,  at  least  so  far  as  examined.  Among 
the  better  beds  in  the  southern  lignitic  belt  may  be  mentioned  the 
following : 

On  Mr.  W.  J.  Hogan’s  land,  Sec.  32,  T.  9,  R.  2 W.,  nearly  2 miles 
southwest  of  Oliver’s  bridge,  there  is  an  outcrop  of  lignite  in  the  bed 
of  a stream  (usually  dry).  Some  of  it  is  rather  earthy,  and  some  of 
the  remainder  is  incompletely  lignitized  and  shows  woody  structure, 
pine  needles,  plant  impressions,  etc.  The  bed  may  be  called  2 feet 
thick,  although  the  lower  part  passes  into  lignitic  clay  in  such  a way 
that  it  is  hard  to  draw  the  line  between  the  two.  The  analysis  shows 
very  little  sulphur.  It  is  easily  accessible.  (Sample  No.  47.) 

On  Mr.  A.  D.  N.  Lancaster’s  land,  near  Delay,  Sec.  33,  T.  9,  R. 
2 W.,  there  is  an  exposure  of  good  lignite  about  28  inches  thick,  in  a 
narrow  ravine  part  of  the  way  down  a steep  hill.  The  analysis  shows 
9,398  thermal  units  per  pound.  (Sample  No.  48.) 

Lignite  is  also  reported  further  west  or  down  the  Yocona  than  the 
two  beds  just  described.  Mr.  W.  J.  Thweatt,  for  instance,  reports 
20  inches  of  lignite  on  his  place  about  5 miles  west  of  Delay.  The 
specimen  brought  to  me  at  the  University  contained  too  much  earthy 
matter  to  bum. 


LAFAYETTE  COUNTY. 


33 


One  mile  east  of  Tula  on  Mr.  W.  W.  Grimes’  land,  Sec.  7,  T.  10, 
R.  1 W.,  in  his  fine  spring  near  the  house,  there  is  a bed  of  firm  lignite 
apparently  good  which  he  says  he  knows  to*  be  at  least  1J  feet  thick. 
It  contains  some  earthy  impurity  and  some  pyrites. 

A little  further  east  on  his  farm  in  the  bed  of  Sandy  Creek  there 
is  a stratum  of  hard  firm  lignite  in  which  there  seemed  to  be  very 
little  impurity,  although  I have  not  examined  a dry  sample  of  it. 
The  auger  went  about  30  inches  before  striking  the  clay;  apparently 
18  inches  of  this  was  firm  and  solid  and  12  inches  of  a softer  nature 
with  perhaps  more  earthy  matter.  This  bed  is  quite  accessible  and 
would  be  very  convenient  for  local  use  in  Tula. 

Lignite  is  also  found  in  Mr.  Jack  Coleman’s  spring,  \ mile  south 
of  Tula.  I took  out  a small  piece,  which  seemed  of  excellent  quality, 
but  could  do  no  more  without  disturbing  the  spring. 

On  Mr.  R.  V.  Edward’s  land,  in  a tributary  of  the  Potlockney, 
Sec.  26,  T.  10,  R.  2 W.,  1 mile  north  of  the  county  line,  is  an  extensive 
exposure  of  lignite,  the  most  extensive  I have  seen  in  the  State.  It 
forms  the  bed  of  the  creek  for  a long  distance,  sometimes  being  10  to 
15  feet  wide  and  rising  at  places  3J  feet  above  the  bed  of  the  stream 
while  still  forming  its  floor.  It  is  of  varied  quality,  much  of  it  is 
solid  and  good;  some  of  it  retains  its  woody  structure;  but  I saw 
none  of  the  wood  silicified.  Some  of -the  lignite  contains  sand  and 
other  impurities,  and,  according  to  Mr.  Edwards  and  his  son,  iron 
pyrites.  At  some  places  where  there  seems  to  be  much  clay  the  lig- 
nite has  a conchoidal  fracture.  This  bed  lies  near  the  public  road 
and  is  easily  accessible.  (Sample  No.  50.)  A dry  sample  of  this 
gave  a good  welding  heat  in  the  University  forge.  When  taken  fresh 
from  the  bed  it  contains  from  25  to  51  per  cent  of  moisture.  Mr. 
Edwards  says  he  strikes  lignite  in  all  his  wells. 

On  Mr.  M.  A.  Gamer’s  land,  Sec.  30,  T.  10,  R.  1 W.,  about  1 'mile 
north  of  the  county  line,  in  the  bank  of  Patison  Creek,  is  heavily 
lignitic  shale  and  clay  more  than  4 feet  thick.  Near  by  a hole  has 
been  dug  from  which  much  better  samples  are  said  to  have  been  taken, 
and  the  pieces  which  I saw  bore  out  this  testimony;  unfortunately 
my  examination  was  incomplete  owing  to  the  fact  that  the  hole  is  now 
largely  filled.  There  are  reports  of  very  good  lignite  from  this  place, 
even  sufficiently  good  for  welding.  Dr.  Hilgard  (pp.  160,  161)  men- 
tions still  other  places  in  the  southern  part  of  the  county  where  lig- 
2 


34 


LIGNITE. 


nite  is  found.  A 6-foot  seam  is  reported  in  a well  at  Paris  (Crider, 
p.  88.) 

A mile  east  of  Oxford,  in  a gully  in  front  of  a house  occupied  by 
a negro  named  Allen  Burt,  there  is  a 6-inch  bed  of  poor  lignite,  the 
greater  part  of  it  more  properly  called  lignitic  earth  perhaps. 

PONTOTOC  COUNTY. 

My  drive  southeast  from  Oxford  extended  no  further  than  the 
Pontotoc  County  line,  as  I could  learn  from  no  one  in  the  vicinity  of 
outcrops  in  the  adjacent  parts  of  Pontotoc  County.  Hilgard  says 
(p.  160) : “Lignite  beds  probably  occur  in  R.  I,*E.,  TT.  9 and  10,  S.  W. 
Pontotoc,  as  they  do  in  the  adjoining  portions  of  Lafayette,  but  I 
have  no  definite  knowledge  of  outcrops  anywhere  in  Pontotoc  County.” 
Mr.  Crider  (p.  88)  also  mentions  lignite  in  southwestern  Pontotoc 
County,  but  whether  the  lignite  at  the  two  places  noted  on  his  field 
map  occurs  in  outcrop  or  in  wells  he  does  not  now  (June,  1907) 
remember. 

ITAWAMBA  COUNTY. 

Lignite  is  reported  at  a number  of  places  in  Itawamba  County* 
not  all  of  which  could  be  examined  by  the  present  writer. 

Four  and  three-fourths  miles  southeast  of  Fulton,  75  yards  to  the 
east  of  the  Tilden  road,  there  is  a bed  of  lignitic  matter  on  Mr.  Hus- 
ton’s land,  Sec.  18,  T.  10,  R.  9 E.,  with  a thickness  of  20  to  21  inches. 
This  is  soft  on  top,  almost  lignitic  clay,  but  harder  toward  the  middle, 
and  contains  iron  pyrites.  It  is  smooth  and  glossy,  showing  plainly 
the  clay  which  it  contains.  This  bed  thins  out  to  nothing  20  feet  to 
the  south  and  apparently  does  so  to  the  north  at  a short  distance. 
(Sample  No.  3.)  The  chemist  reports  that  the  sample  contains  25 
per  cent  of  ash,  over  3 per  cent  of  sulphur,  and  that  it  failed  to  burn. 

On  Mr.  E.  A.  Palmer’s  land,  Sec.  9,  T.  10,  R.  9 E.,  I examined 
two  beds,  one  about  13  inches  thick,  the  other  near  the  church  about 
12  inches  thick.  (Samples  No.  4 and  No.  5).  Both  beds  contain 
too  much  sulphur,  as  is  evident  to  the  eye.  Chemical  analysis  shows 
No.  4 to  be  a worthless  sample,  with  61  per  cent  of  ash,  and  No.  5 to  be 
a sample  of  only  medium  quality.  Mr.  Palmer  reports  a third  bed  on 
this  piece  of  land,  which  I did  not  have  time  to  examine. 


MONROE  AND  CALHOUN  COUNTIES. 


35 


On  Mr.  Wm.  Reed’s  land,  Sec.  17,  T.  10,  R.  9 E.,  there  is  an  open- 
ing into  the  hill  which  he  made  for  lignite,  but  sand  has  fallen  into  it 
and  it  contains  water,  so  I was  unwilling  to  enter  it.  Mr.  Reed  gives 
the  thickness  as  about  30  inches.  Sand  lies  above  the  bed. 

Lignite  is  also  reported  to  exist  south  of  Tilden  and  north  or 
northeast  of  Fulton  in  this  county. 

MONROE  COUNTY. 

Mr.  Dean  reports  that  he  struck  lignite  in  two  wells  about  1J 
miles  from  Greenwood  Springs;  the  first  he  abandoned  after  going 
into  the  lignite  about  6 inches,  in  the  second  he  passed  through  3 feet 
of  Jignite.*  He  reports  troublesome  gas  in  the  wells.  By  digging 
in  the  old  well-heap  I found  pieces  of  the  lignite,  which  showed  dis- 
tinct woody  structure. 

Lignite  is  reported  to  exist  at  several  places  southeast  of  the 
Greenwood  Springs  station  across  the  Buttahatchie  River,  but  my 
brief  visit  led  me  to  believe  that  the  quantity  is  small. 

CALHOUN  COUNTY. 

The  Calhoun  County  lignites  are  among  the  very  best  in  the 
State.  Several  beds  are  reported  in  the  extreme  northern  part  of 
the  county,  Sections  11  and  12,  T.  11,  R.  2 W.,  only  one  of  which  I 
examined,  and  that  superficially.  Mr.  Crider  (p.  88)  reports  that  the 
outcrop  on  Mr.  J.  A.  Head’s  land,  near  the  one  I examined,  is  5 feet 
thick.  A sample  of  this  lignite  was  exhibited  at  the  Exposition  in 
St.  Louis.  Mr.  Head  informs  me  that  there  are  two  outcrops  on  his 
land. 

At  Reynold’s  gin  and  mill,  near  Trusty  Postoffice,  there  is  a 7- 
inch  stratum  of  lignite  in  the  stream.  At  Parker’s  (?)  spring,  1 mile 
from  Trusty,  there  is  a 17-inch  seam  with  plant  impressions,  iron 
pyrites  and  sand.  At  Rock  Branch  school-house,  2 miles  from 
Ellard,  I found  a small  quantity  of  highly  laminated  lignite  in  a recent 
well-heap. 

Pittsboro,  in  the  central  part  of  the  county,  and  Slate  Springs,  in 
the  Southern  part,  are  centers  of  good  lignite  containing  very  little 
sulphur. 

Sample  No.  42  is  from  a well-heap  in  Pittsboro  just  east  of  the 
city  square.  This  lignite  is  said  to  lie  15  feet  below  the  surface  and 


36 


LIGNITE. 


to  be  4 feet  thick.  In  color  it  is  black  or  almost  black.  It  leaves 
only  7J  per  cent  ash  and  contains  but  little  sulphur.  Lignite  crops 
out  again  in  the  spring  200  or  300  yards  north  of  the  square  as  a poor 
shaly  material  and  is  reported  to  be  struck  in  many  wells.  Harper 
says  (p.  214):  “The  inhabitants  meet  the  lignite  stratum  everywhere, 
about  30  feet  below  the  surface,  and  find  it  to  be  in  some  places  of 
the  unusual  thickness  of  30  feet;  the  latter  is  especially  the  case 
eastwards  of  the  town,  in  which  direction ' the  stratum  of  lignite 
seems  to  increase  in  thickness.” 

At  Camp  Spring,  i mile  northwest  of  Pittsboro,  the  water  runs 
over  about  28  inches  of  good  lignite.  (Sample  No.  43.)  One  log  of 
wood  in  this  bed  is  comparatively  little  altered.  This  lignite  stands 
the  wear  of  water  well.  It  contains,  according  to  analysis,  a very 
high  percentage  of  volatile  matter.  About  7 feet  of  clay  underlies 
this  stratum  and  below  the  clay  is  a 6-inch  stratum  of  inferior  lignite. 

Both  42  and  43  could  be  used  for  heating  and  power  in  Pittsboro. 
For  instance,  an  electric  plant  could  be  located  at  Camp  Spring  for 
lighting  the  town  and  would  have  both  water  and  fuel  convenient. 
Water  could  also  be  pumped  into  town  from  this  spring.  Of  course 
a more  thorough  investigation  should  first  be  made  as  to  the  total 
amount  of  lignite  present  and  the  proper  machinery  for  lignite  con- 
sumption should  be  employed. 

Another  outcrop  is  found  in  a spring  on  Mr.  B.  F.  Harrelson’s 
land,  not  far  away;  thickness  of  stratum  undetermined,  and  no 
sample  taken. 

The  lignites  of  the  southern  part  of  the  county  show  a still  higher 
calorific  value  than  those  of  the  vicinity  of  Pittsboro.  On  Mr.  John 
McPhail’s  land,  2 miles  from  Slate  Springs,  a shaft  was  sunk  for  lig- 
nite, which  has  now  fallen  in,  so  that  I could  not  see  the  fuel  in  place. 
I took  my  sample,  No.  44,  partly  from  the  exposed  heap  and  partly 
from  the  coal-house,  each  part  being  18  months  old.  The  lignite  is 
said  to  lie  about  18  feet  below  the  surface  and  to  be  about  8 feet  thick 
and  of  uniform  quality.  It  crumbles  upon  exposure,  as  most  lignites 
do.  Its  color  is  black,  or  almost  a solid  black.  As  the  analysis 
shows,  this  is  an  excellent  lignite. 

In  the  house  spring  on  the  Tom  Walton  place,  1 mile  west  of 
Slate  Spring,  there  is  an  outcrop  of  .1  foot  of  good  solid  lignite  which 
blocks  out  well.  The  analysis  shows  this  (Sample  No.  45)  to  have 


YALOBUSHA  AND  TALLAHATCHIE  COUNTIES. 


37 


next  to  the  highest  number  of  heat  units  of  any  specimen  examined. 
The  lignite  occurs  just  below  sand  and  has  a high  hill  above  it. 

The  Calhoun  County  lignites  when  dry  will  bum  well  in  an  open 
grate.  The  writer  tried  a scuttle  of  this  fuel,  composed  of  a mixture 
of  samples  42,  43,  44,  45,  in  his  own  grate  and  obtained  a steady, 
good  fire,  which  burned  up  completely. 

There  are  reports  of  lignite  in  the  vicinity  of  Burke,  both  in  wells 
and  in  outcrop,  one  outcrop  being  in  the  bank  of  Schouna  River.  Hil- 
gard  (p.  161)  mentions  lignite  in  the  vicinity  of  Sarepta,  and  in  town- 
ship 12,  range  2 west,  and  also  on  the  river  just  below  Old  Town. 

YALOBUSHA  COUNTY. 

Yalobusha  County  contains  considerable  lignite.  In  the  extreme 
eastern  part  of  the  county  there  are  two  beds,  one  19  inches  thick  on 
Mr.  B.  French’s  land  1 mile  west  of  Airmount,  the  other  15  inches 
thick  on  Wash  Hamblett’s  land  not  far  away.  Both  of  these  lignites 
are  firm  and  solid,  but  seemed  from  a field  examination  to  contain 
considerable  earthy  impurity,  and  the  latter  much  iron  pyrites. 
They  are  capped  by  a thin  shell  of  sandstone  and  lie  under  high  hills. 
Lignite  is  struck  in  many  wells  about  Airmount,  according  to  the 
reports  of  the  citizens. 

Six  and  a half  miles  east  of  Coffeeville,  on  J.  J.  Milton’s  land, 
Sec.  5,  T.  24,  R.  7 E.,  there  is  a bed  of  excellent  lignite  outcropping  in 
a big  spring.  This  lignite  is  firm,  compact  and  uniform  in  character 
so  far  as  examined;  the  thickness  is  from  22  to  29  inches.  Two 
inches  of  sandstone  roof  the  bed,  the  hill  above  is  gentle,  and  the 
location  accessible.  Sample  No.  46. 

There  are  reports  of  lignite  at  Vann’s  old  mill  race  3 miles  south 
of  Yalobusha  across  the  Schouna  River,  and  at  or  near  Pine  Valley. 
Wailes  (p.  239)  reports  lignite  at  McElroy’s  mill  on  Turkey  Creek. 

TALLAHATCHIE  COUNTY. 

On  Mr.  B.  M.  Baker’s  place,  4 or  5 miles  north  of  Charleston,  Sec. 
3,  T.  25,  R.  2 E.,  there  is  a bed  of  very  poor  lignite.  I could  not  take 
the  depth  with  the  auger  on  account  of  the  iron  pyrite,  which  exists 
here  in  greater  quantities  and  larger  pieces  than  I have  seen  elsewhere 
in  lignite.  The  sample,  No.  24,  shows  over  6 per  cent  of  sulphur  after 
the  lumps  of  pyrites  were  removed. 


38 


LIGNITE. 


Three  miles  north  of  Charleston  is  a deposit  of  lignite  which  was 
opened  some  years  ago  but  is  now  covered  over.  The  fragments  in 
the  heap  were  badly  weathered  and  flaked  into  thin  layers,  and  con- 
tained leaf  impressions.  Mr.  Craig  is  of  the  opinion  that  this  bed 
was  about  3 feet  thick,  and  that  is  was  tried  in  the  shops  with  only 
moderate  success. 

A bed  is  reported  to  have  been  exposed  in  the  creek  north  of  Mr. 
Sherman’s,  but  to  be  now  covered  with  sand.  Thin  layers  are 
reported  also  southeast  of  Payne’s. 

' WEBSTER  COUNTY. 

Lignite  is  found  in  the  central  and  northwest  parts  of  Webster 
County.  At  Bellefontaine  there  is  a bed  of  good  lignite,  measuring 
19  inches  thick  where  it  crops  out  in  the  road.  (Sample  No.  40.) 
This  contains  very  little  sulphur  and  at  the  place  where  the  sample  was 
taken  is  quite  dry.  The  University  blacksmith  tried  a fire  of  this 
lignite  under  my  direction  and  found  it  to  give  a good  welding  heat. 
It  gave  off  numerous  sparks  in  burning.  This  bed  is  very  convenient 
for  local  use  in  Bellefontaine. 

At  the  base  of  the  same  hill,  in  a gully,  is  a thinner  and  poorer 
stratum  of  lignite. 

Lignite  is  reported  to  exist  1 mile  southeast  of  Bellefontaine;  at 
McCain,  2 miles  northwest  of  Bellfontaine;  on  Mr.  A.  P.  Magnes’ 
place,  2 miles  northeast  of  Bellfontaine,  and  at  a place  1}  miles  north- 
west of  Embry.  Mr.  L.  L.  Hammond  says  that  he  always  strikes 
lignite  in  his  borings  about  Dabney. 

At  the  old  Carver  place,  3 miles  northeast  of  Alva,  there  is  an 
exposure  of  lignite  in  the  stream  not  far  from  the  bridge.  The  thick- 
ness could  not.be  determined.  This  lignite  is  inferior  to  the  Belle- 
fontaine sample,  having  more  extraneous  matter.  Sample  No.  39 
was  taken  from  the  upper  part  and  was  water  worn. 

Farther  north,  near  the  northwest  comer  of  the  county,  on  the 
Mr.  W.  M.  Jenkins’  place,  there  is  said  to  be  considerable  lignite 
from  7 to  16  feet  below  the  surface,  and  from  4 to  5 feet  thick.  There 
is  no  outcrop,  but  I saw  a small  quantity  of  small  fragments  at  the 
house,  and  it  seemed  to  indicate  a good  quality.  This  is  said  to  bum 
in  the  forge. 


CHOCTAW  COUNTY. 


39 


CHOCTAW  COUNTY. 

Choctaw  County  is  relatively  rich  in  lignites.  The  six  samples 
collected  from  this  county  all  show  over  9,000  B.  T.  U.  and  four  of 
them  show  over  9,400.  The  sample  from  Mr.  Oswalt’s  is  the  only  one 
found  in  the  State  with  over  10,000  B.  T.  U.  The  Choctaw  County 
lignites  contain  more  sulphur  than  the  Calhoun  County  samples,  but 
somewhat  less  moisture. 

Sample  No.  6 is  from  Mr.  W.  A.  Collins’  land  in  the  southeastern 
comer  of  the  township,  6 miles  from  Ackerman.  The  bed  is  29  inches 
thick,  the  upper  part  of  it  showing  a decidedly  woody  structure. 

Sample  No.  7 is  a good  lignite  from  the  town  of  Chester,  occurring 
at  the  spring  just  below  the  jail.  It  contains  rather  too  much  sulphur 
but  is  very  convenient  for  local  use.  The  thickness  is  20  to  22  inches, 
with  9 inches  of  poorer  lignite  or  lignitic  clay  below.  There  are  at 
least  three  other  exposures  in  Chester. 

Sample  No.  8 is  from  the  old  Moses  Bridges  place,  now  belonging 
to  Mr.  J.  R.  Ray’s  mother,  Sec.  33,  T.  18,  R.  10  E.,  presumably  the 
place  mentioned  by  Hilgard  (p.  162).  The  bed  of  the  creek  has  been 
turned  aside  and  the  lignite  is  now  covered.  A sample  was  taken 
from  a heap  thrown  out  two  years  ago.  The  thickness  was  not  deter- 
mined; Hilgard  gives  it  as  about  4 feet  (if  the  beds  are  identical), 
which  is  more  than  Mr.  Ray  remembers  it  to  have  been  when  he 
opened  it  two  or  three  years  ago.  Some  of  the  lignite  was  lighted 
with  a small  wood  fire  by  the  side  of  the  road;  it  ignited  with  diffi- 
culty ,#  but  was  still  burning  two  hours  later. 

Sample  No.  9 is  from  Mr.  Patrick  Ray’s  land,  Sec.  32,  T.  18,  R. 

10  E.,  about  1 mile  from  the  preceding.  This  bed  is  probably  12  to 
15  inches  thick  and  is  underlain  by  an  equal  thickness  of  lignitic 
shale. 

-Sample  No.  10  is  from  Mr.  E.  W.  Oswalt’s  place,  Sec.  2,  T.  17,  R. 

11  E.  There  are  four  outcrops  of  lignite  on  this  farm,  two  of  which 
I saw.  The  sample  is  from  the  second,  which  I examined,  the  first 
being  in  a spring.  In  color  it  is  from  brown  to  black.  The  analysis 
shows  for  this  the  highest  heating  capacity  of  all  the  lignites  exam- 
ined, the  result  of  a very  high  percentage  of  fixed  carbon.  The  bed 
is  32  inches  thick,  the  lower  10  inches  not  being  so  good.  Beneath  is 
a blue  clay.  This  lignite  when  tried  in  the  University  forge  came 
rapidly  to  a sharpening  heat  and  soon  gave  a good  weld. 


40 


LIGNITE. 


Mr.  Oswalt  thinks  the  two  other  outcrops  in  the  next  hollow  of 
about  the  same  character.  On  Mrs.  Dora  Oswalt’s  place,  about  ^ 
mile  away,  is  another  outcrop  of  similar  character,  Mr.  Oswalt  reports. 

Sample  No.  11  is  from  a spring  in  Mr.  P.  M.  Snow’s  field,  Sec.  15, 
T.  17,  R.  11  E.  This  bed  was  visited  late  in  the  afternoon,  when  I 
did  not  have  time  to  reach  the  bottom  of  it;  hence  the  thickness 
cannot  be  given.  This  is  an  excellent  lignite  with  a small  amount  of 
ash  and  a large  amount  of  volatile  matter. 

At  Mr.  Snow’s  house  in  Section  14  of  the  same  tract,  the  well- 
borers  report  striking  lignite  4 feet  thick  at  a depth  of  24  or  25  feet. 
This  thickness  may  include  lignitic  shale  or  clay.  One  hundred  yards 
away  in  the  railroad  cut  lignite  of  a poor  quality  crops  out. 

A 2-foot  bed  of  lignite  on  Mr.  W.  Y.  Barron’s  land,  6 miles  north- 
east of  Ackerman,  is  reported  to  have  caught  fire  in  the  summer  or 
fall  of  1905  and  to  have  burnt  for  2 months,  causing  a disagreeable 
odor  for  1 mile  or  farther. 

On  the  old  Henry  Wood  place,  at  the  spring,  1J  miles  north  of 
Chester,  Sec.  35,  T.  18,  R.  10  E.,  there  is  an  outcrop  of  about  3 feet 
of  hard,  laminated  lignitic  shale  or  clay,  scarcely  to  be 'Called  lignite. 
It  contains  pyrites  and  plant  impressions.  (See  Hilgard,  page  162.) 

Another  outcrop  is  reported  3 miles  from  Chester  and  1|  miles 
from  the  Woods  place,  where  shaly  lignite  outcrops;  this  is  said  to 
be  sufficiently  good  for  sharpening  but  not  for  welding.  Lignite  is 
also  reported  on  the  Busby  place  10  miles  north  of  Ackerman  and  3 
miles  west  of  Reform.  I failed  to  find  it  in  the  brief  time  at  my 
disposal. 

Hilgard  (p.  162)  records  that  a stratum  of  lignite  4 feet  thick  was 
struck  in  a well  at  a depth  of  about  45  feet  at  Black’s  well,  Sec.  23, 
T.  17,  R.  10  E.,  and  (p.  161)  that  dark  lignitic  clay  with  a vein  of 
lignite  crops  out  on  a bluff  | mile  southwest  of  Bankston. 

WINSTON  COUNTY. 

“North  Winston  abounds  in  lignite.  It  is  found  in  a stratum  4 
feet  in  thickness,  in  wells  near  New  Prospect  Postoffice  and  east  of 
the  same  on  the  headwaters  of  Noxubee,  where  it  crops  out  abund- 
antly in  gullies  and  is  struck  in  wells  north  of  Webster.  I have  had 
no  opportunity  of  observing  these  beds  personally.”  (Hilgard,  p. 
162.)  In  a hurried  drive  from  Louisville  to  Webster  and  vicinity  I 


WINSTON,  NESHOBA  AND  KEMPER  COUNTIES. 


41 


found  no  lignite,  but  only  lignitic  clay,  beyond  Drip  Spring,  although 
there  are  still  reports  of  such  beds.  A more  careful  search  might 
reveal  them. 

Louisville,  the  county  seat  of  Winston  County,  is  in  a lignitic 
area.  Reports  indicate  lignite  in  a number  of  places.  The  well- 
borers,  who  were  sinking  a well  at  the  livery  stable  at  the  time  of  my 
visit,  reported  striking  lignite  at  a depth  of  about  40  feet. 

On  Mr.  W.  E.  Huntley’s  land,  2 J miles  west  of  Louisville,  Sec.  31, 
T.  15,  R.  12  E.,  is  a bed  of  1 foot  of  fair  lignite.  (Sample  No.  12.)  It 
has  nearly  3 per  cent  of  sulphur  and  rather  too  much  ash,  but  a rela- 
tively small  amount  of  water.  Mr.  Huntley  says  he  did  all  his  black- 
smith’s work,  including  welding,  for  two  or  three  years  with  this 
lignite.  He  reports  two  other  outcrops  in  the  southeast  corner  of 
the  same  section. 

♦ 

The  box  of  Drip  Spring,  2J  miles  north  of  Louisville,  is  cut  in 
lignite  of  good  quality.  The  thickness  is  probably  about  2 feet. 
The  analysis  shows  this  to  be  higher  in  fixed  carbon  than  any  other 
Mississippi  lignite  analyzed,  and  it  is  the  best  of  the  Winston  County 
lignites  examined.  (Sample  No.  13.)  If  it  should  prove  to  be  present 
in  sufficient  quantities  it  could  be  used  for  heat  and  power  in  Louis- 
ville. No  doubt  it  could  be'used  to  advantage  in  the  forge. 

On  Mr.  C.  L.  Taylor’s  land,  3 miles  northwest  of  town,  there  is  a 
bed  of  good  lignite,  whose  thickness  is  undetermined,  but  which  is  at 
least  41  inches.  (Sample  No.  14.)  This  contains  but  little  sulphur. 
Dried  samples  show  light  splotches  of  earthy  matter. 

Eleven  and  one-fourth  miles  east  of  Louisville,  near  Perkins ville, 
is,^a  very  thin,  insignificant  sheet  of  lignite  on  Mr.  J.  W.  Chapel’s 
land.  There  are  reports  of  lignite  in  other  parts  of  the  county. 

NESHOBA  COUNTY. 

No  outcrops  of  lignite  were  found  by  the  present  writer  in  Neshoba 
county,  but  the  well-diggers  and  others  report  lignite  as  occurring 
in  wells  in  and  about  Philadelphia.  Wailes  (P.  239)  mentions  a 
deposit  on  Sec.  30,  T.  11,  R.  12  E.,  near  Philadelphia. 

KEMPER  COUNTY. 

Two  samples  of  good  lignite  were  obtained  from  Kemper  County. 
No.  15  is  from  Mr.  H.  A.  Hopper’s  land  1J  miles  north  of  DeKalb. 


42 


LIGNITE. 


A horizontal  opening  has  been  made  into  the  side  of  the  hill  following 
this  stratum  some  distance  and  the  lignite  is  shown  to  be  fairly  uniform. 
Measurement  showed  the  thickness  to  be  27  inches,  which  Mr.  S.  O. 
Bell,  chancery  clerk  at  DeKalb,  thinks  increases  further  back.  This 
lignite  contains  too  much  sand  and  earthy  matter,  otherwise  it  is 
good.  Mr.  Bell  says  it  has  been  used  in  the  forge  for  welding.  A 
2-inch  sandstone  cap  covers  the  bed,  above  which  is  sand;  below  the 
lignite  is  black  lignitic  clay.  Mr.  Bell  reports  that  lignite  crops  out 
in  several  places  in  this  same  hollow;  I saw  one  other,  where  the 
stratum  seemed  about  1 foot  thick. 

There  is  another  outcrop  on  Mr.  Hopper’s  land  about  a mile 
north  of  town  in  a spring  near  a tenant  house.  This  seemed  of  good 
quality  from  a field  examination ; thickness  unascertained. 

On  Mr.  L.  J.  Wimberley’s  land  4J  miles  north  of  DeKalb  is  an 
outcrop  of  lignite  of  about  29  inches  in  thickness.  The  quality  did 
not  appear  so  good  as  Mr.  Hopper’s.  There  is  no  roof  of  stone  about 
it.  Mr.  Wimberley  reports  another  outcrop  about  a mile  north  of 
this,  which  he  thinks  is  probably  better. 

AtJPool’s  mill  4 miles  southeast  of  DeKalb,  Sec.  14,  T.  10,  R. 
16  E.,  there  is  a 2-foot  outcrop  of  good  firm  lignite  which  blocks 
out  in  large  lumps.  It  seemed  to  be  o*f  uniform  quality  so  far  as 
exposed,  and  contains  some  iron  pyrites.  Mr.  Pool  says  he  cannot 
use  it  to  advantage  in  his  shop.  That  is  perhaps  because  he  did  not 
dry  it  sufficiently.  The  percentage  of  sulphur  is  also  rather  high. 
The  quantity  of  ash  is  unusually  small  for  Mississippi  lignites  and  the 
percentage  of  fixed  carbon  unusually  high;  hence  its  heating  power 
is  greater  than  that  of  the  Hooper  lignite  north  of  DeKalb. 

Mr.  Pool  reports  another  outcrop  J mile  away  on  his  place,  of 
about  the  same  quality,  but  a little  thinner.  Lignite  is  also  reported 
near  Cullum  and  Spinks  in  the  southern  part  of  the  county. 

LAUDERDALE  COUNTY. 

At  Lockhart,  in  a spring  behind  Mr.  E.  P.  Brown’s  store,  there  is 
an  outcrop  of  11  inches  of  lignite  apparently  good  except  the  top  inch 
or  two,  which  is  soft  and  mucky.  Below  is  lignitic  clay,  above  is 
yellow,  sand.  Mr.  Brown  says  there  are  Other  outcrops  and  that 
it  also  occurs  in  wells  about  Lockhart. 


LAUDERDALE  COUNTY. 


43 


There  is  considerable  lignitic  clay  between  Lockhart  and  the  deep 
cut  on  the  Mobile  and  Ohio  Railroad  2 miles  above  town.  This  cut  is 
reported  to  have  been  on  fire  for  some  time,  but  there  is  now  no  trace 
of  present  or  past  burning.  There  is  much  lignitic  earth,  but  very 
little  true  lignite  here. 

In  the  railroad  cut  J mile  north  of  Topton  there  is  a stratum  of 
lignitic  shale  which  can  perhaps  be  called  lignite,  especially  at  the 
bottom.  At  the  thickest  it  is  between  3 and  4 feet.  It  seems  to  be 
lenticular  in  shape  and  practically  disappears  at  fifty  yards  right  and 
left.  Within  this  stratum  petrified  logs  appear  completely  sur- 
rounded by  lignitic  matter.  These  are  brown  to  black  in  color. 
Within  5 feet  of  the  largest  of  these  logs  is  another  log  slightly  enough 
changed  from  its  original  condition  to  be  easily  whittled  with  a knife. 
Below-  the  lignitic  stratum  is  a compact  stratified  green  (or  bluish) 
slightly  micaceous  sand,  which  splits  off  and  lies  in  the  stream  like 
great  stones.  The  cut  just  beyond,  at  the  145  mile-post,  is  said  to 
have  burnt  for  many  years,  the  fire  being  hidden  but  the  smoke 
showing  above  the  ground. 

Hilgard  (pp.  118,  162)  reports  lignite  in  the  wells  at  and  about 
Marion  and  on  Sowashee  Creek,  2J  miles  north  of  Marion.  Mr.  J.  R. 
Hobgood,  who  lives  about  4 miles  north  of  Marion  Station,  says  he 
struck  two  or  three  feet  of  lignite  in- digging  his  well  ten  years  ago, 
and  that  his  brother  who  lives  near  him  found  it  in  a well  more  recently 
dug. , 

In  Russell  I was  informed  that  lignite  of  various  thickness  is 
struck  in  digging  wells  and  that  it  outcrops  in  the  creek  near  by  with 
a thickness  of  1 foot. 

In  the  deep  cut  on  the  railroad  east  of  Russell  just  before  reaching 
the  287  mile-post  there  are  two  strata  of  about  1 foot  each  of  heavily 
charged  lignitic  earth  or  lignite. 

About  2 miles  east  of  Russell  on  the  railroad  there  are  several 
abandoned  shafts  and  galleries  formerly  used  by  the  Meridian  Fer- 
tilizer Co.  In  the  cut  between  two  of  these  workings  there  is  exposed 
a 3J  foot  stratum  of  poor  lignite,  with  plant  remains  and  much  clay 
— no  doubt  the  same  stratum  as  the  one  used  by  the  fertilizer  com- 
pany. The  use  of  this  lignite  as  an  ingredient  in  the  Meridian 
fertilizer  has  been  abandoned  for  some  years.  Twenty  or  twenty-five 


44 


LIGNITE. 


feet  above  this  stratum  in  the  same  cut  is  another  stratum  about  1 
foot  thick,  which  being  difficult  of  access  was  not  examined. 

Hilgard  (p.  162)  mentions  the  report  of  “black  mud”  found  in 
Daleville;  this  may  mean  lignite,  but  more  probably  lignitic  earth. 

JASPER  COUNTY. 

Near  Garlandville,  Jasper  County,  on  Suanlovey  Creek,  there  is  a 
bed  of  lignite,  showing  upon  analysis  a high  percentage  of  volatile 
matter.  I visited  the  vicinity  but  it  was  not  convenient  to  examine 
the  deposit,  so  the  sample  (No.  17)  was  sent  to  me  later  by  Dr.  Lough- 
ridge.  This  bed  was  visited  in  the  early  days  by  Dr.  Hilgard,  who 
reported  it  (pp.  127,  163)  as  occurring  between  the  Claiborne  and 
Jackson  group  and  being  exposed  to  the  thickness  of  2 feet  above 
the  bed  of  the  stream  with  a probable  continuation  below ; he  speaks 
of  the  quality  as  good. 

RANKIN  COUNTY. 

A stratum  of  lignite  less  than  one  foot  thick  occurs  in  the  cut  just 
east  of  Rankin.  Mr.  J.  A.  Spears  of  Rankin  informs  me  that  a test 
well  at  the  tank  struck  3 feet  of  lignite  at  a depth  of  30-33  feet. 
The  well  at  the  mill  struck  two  thin  sheets  of  lignite  and  a thicker 
one.  In  Mr.  S.  R.  William’s  well  3 miles  east  of  Rankin  18  inches  of 
solid  lignite  is  reported. 

Dr.  Hilgard  (pp.  108,  140)  reports  lignite  at  and  north  of  Brandon, 
but  the  quantity  seems  small.  I could  get  no  trace  of  any  beds  of 
importance  there.  Harper  (p.  168)  reports  it  “in  Rankin  County, 
where  it  crops  out  in  a cut  on  the  railroad.” 

HINDS  COUNTY. 

Hilgard  and  others  have  reported  lignites  in  the  vicinity  of  Jack- 
son,  but  these  reports  are  so  unpromising  as  to  have  led  me  to  con- 
sider it  unnecessary  to  make  further  investigation.  Dr.  Hilgard 
(pp.  130,  131,  163)  reports  1 foot  of  earthy  lignite  at  Moody’s  Branch 
near  Jackson.  He  also  reports  (p.  163)  finding  “chunks  of  good 
lignite  at  a sandy  bluff  on  Pearl  River,  about  1 mile  (by  land)  above 
Jackson,”  without  being  able  to  ascertain  the  dimensions  of  the  bed 
in  place. 


CLAIBORNE  AND  WARREN  COUNTIES. 


45 


Wailes  says  (p.  239):  “Mr.  Fairchilds  informs  me  that  in  sinking 
a well  on  Sec.  11,  T.  4,  R.  3 W.,  he  encountered  a bed  of  considerable 
thickness,  35  feet  below  the  surface.”  Harper  mentions  lignite  in 
the  same  township  and  section  as  “about  20  feet  thick,  and  perhaps 
connected  with  the  Vicksburg  deposit.” 

Mr.  Crider  (p.  36)  reports  a 6-inch  bed  of  lignite  in  a deep  branch 
in  the  southern  part  of  Sec.  15,  T.  4,  R.  1 E.,  not  far  from  Byram. 
This,  he  thinks  probable,  marks  the  break  between  the  Vicksburg 
and  the  Jackson  formations. 

CLAIBORNE  COUNTY. 

In  Claiborne  County  there  is  lignite  occurring  within  the  Grand 
Gulf  formation.  In  T.  13,  R.  3 E.,  about  2\  miles  southwest  of  Mr. 
Bagnell’s,  is  a deposit  between  the  sandstone  strata  of  the  Grand 
Gulf.  This  lignite  is  about  1 foot  thick,  closely  laminated,  weathers 
into  flakes  and  contains  many  lumps  of  iron  pyrites.  Apparently  it 
contains  much  impurity  and  would  leave  a high  percentage  of  ash. 
Another  outcrop  is  reported  about  3£  miles  southwest  of  Hinkinson 
on  Foster  and  Dochterman's  land,  and  is  said  to  be  about  1 foot  thick. 

Wailes  (p.  239)  mentions  a 2-foot  exposure  of  lignite  near  Big 
Black  River  occurring  between  two  strata  of  the  Grand  Gulf  sand- 
stone, but  there  is  some  error  in  the  text  as  to  the  geographical  location, 
as  it  is  placed  in  Sec.  47  [sic],  T.  13,  R.  2 E.  Harper  (p.  168)  reports 
lignite  on  Big  Black  River,  T.  13,  R.  3 E. 

WARREN  COUNTY. 

On  account  of  the  high  stage  of  the  river  at  the  time  of  my  visit 
I was  unable  to  examine  the  lignite  stratum  reported  at  Vicksburg. 
Wailes  (pp.  2^7,  238)  says: 

“The  most  considerable  deposit  of  lignite,  by  far,  which  has  come 
under  my  observation,  is  that  at  Vicksburg.  This  I had  a favorable 
opportunity  of  examining  on  the  10th  of  October,  1852,  owing  to  an 
unusually  low  stage  of  water  in  the  Mississippi,  it  being  rarely 
exposed  to  view.  On  that  occasion  I measured  500  yards  on  its 
surface,  along  the  margin  of  the  river,  and  obtained  specimens  of  it. 
. . . The  thickness  of  the  bed  I had  no  means  of  ascertaining,  no 
excavation  having  been  made.” 


46 


LIGNITE. 


Dr.  Hilgard  (pp.  141,  164),  on  the  authority  of  Prof.  Moore, 
speaks  of  this  as  solid,  lustrous  lignite  not  exceeding  3 feet  in  thick- 
ness. 

YAZOO  COUNTY. 

At  Mr.  Joe  Dilley’s  house  half  way  between  Phoenix  and  Mechan- 
icsburg  I found  one  small  outcrop  of  lignite  2 to  3 inches  thick  in  the 
bottom  of  a stream.  Another  small  outcrop  is  reported  further  down 
the  creek,  equally  insignificant. 

Harper  (p.  168)  says:  “Another  remarkable  stratum  of  very  fine 
lignite  is  found  on  Sec.  27,  T.  9,  R.  4 W.,  in  Yazoo  County.  It  is 
about  14  feet  in  thickness,  lies  between  two  strata  of  green  clay.  . . . 
and  extends  all  under  the  hill,  cropping  out  again  on  the  opposite 
side  of  it;  it  covers  about  one-fourth  of  the  area  of  a square  mile.” 
I made  a search  for  this  bed  but  failed  to  find  any  trace  or  rumor  of  it. 

At  Freerun  in  the  northern  part  of  the  county  there  is  an  outcrop 
of  11  inches  of  poor  lignite  in  the  valley  behind  Mr.  Gunn’s  store. 
(Sample  No.  19.)  The  analysis  shows  nearly  39  per  cent  of  ash. 

MADISON  COUNTY. 

“In  Madison  County  lignite  beds  of  great  thicjmess  have  been 
struck  in  wells  bored  by  order  of  the  Rev.  J.  R.  Lambuth,  both  at 
Canton  and  at  his  residence,  Sec.  2,  T.  7,  R.  2 E.,  near  Calhoun  Sta- 
tion. At  a depth  of  375  feet  a ledge  of  rock  was  penetrated,  beneath 
which,  for  46  feet,  the  auger  brought  up  lignite,  with  only  an  occa- 
sional band  of  clay.”  (Hilgard,  pp.  163,  192.)  My  inquiries  at 
Canton  failed  to  elicit  any  knowledge  of  lignite  outcropping  or  in 
wells  near  by.  A gentleman  informed  me  that  in  the  northeastern 
part  of  the  county,  between  Couparle  and  Kirkwood,  lignite  was  struck 
at  about  40  feet  in  a well  on  Mr.  J.  R.  Sherrard’s  land,  and  that  it 
made  a gas  in  the  well  so  strong  that  the  men  could  not  work. 

SCOTT  COUNTY. 

• 

About  16  miles  east  of  Canton  on  the  further  side  of  Pearl  River  in 
Scott  (?)  County  there  is  a large  vertical  lignitic  bank  descending 
into  the  river.  This  is  called  Coal  Bluff,  and  is  reached  by  rowing 
on  the  river.  The  lower  end  of  the  outcrop  dips  sharply  down  stream 
and  is  merely  stratified  lignitic  sand.  At  the  highest  point  of  the  bluff 


SCOTT  AND  HOLMES  COUNTIES. 


47 


the  strata  are  practically  horizontal.  At  this  point  the  section  is 
about  as  follows: 

Section  at  Coal  Bluff , on  Pearl  River. 


Columbia  loam  (?) 9 feet. 

Unstratified  sand 9 feet. 

Lignitic  shale 3J  feet. 

Solid  lignite 17  inches. 

Laminated  lignite 3 feet. 

Clay x feet. 


About  17  inches  of  this  lignite  is  very  solid.  The  strata  vary 
considerably  at  different  points.  The  thickest  lignite,  properly  so 
called,  is  somewhat  over  5 feet.  Some  of  this  bed  is  almost  black. 
Part  of  the  lignite  near  the  water,  and  much  of  the  underlying  clay,  is 
perforated  or  honey-combed  with  small  holes.  Sample  No.  18  shows 
a high  percentage  of  sulphur.  The  upper  member  of  this  section  is 
marked  doubtfully  as  Columbia.  I could  not  reach  it  to  examine 
it.  Looked  at  from  below  it  suggested  Columbia,  but  that  formation 
would  scarcely  be  expected  in  a broad  river  bottom. 

This  lignite  is  very  convenient  for  water  transportation  to  Jackson. 
Mr.  Wm.  Richards  reports  considerable  lignite  above  Alligator  Lake, 
2 miles  further  up  the  river. 

Dr.  Logan  reports  lignite  and  lignitic  clay  to  the  thickness  of  6 
feet  in  the  Jackson  formation  at  Morton. 

HOLMES  COUNTY. 

The  lignite  beds  of  Holmes  County  compare  favorably  in  thickness 
with  any  in  the  State,  but  in  quality  they  do  not  seem  to  be  equal  on 
the  whole  of  those  of  Calhoun  County  or  of  Choctaw  County.  The 
chemical  analyses  show  both  more  sulphur  and  more  ash  than  are  to 
be  found  in  the  Calhoun  County  lignite.  Analyses  from  four  beds 
were  made,  the  lowest  showing  8426  B.  T.  U.  and  the  highest  9201. 
Of  these  four  beds  the  least  thickness  was  3 feet  and  the  greatest  8. 

On  the  old  Stainback  place  now  owned  by  Mr.  G.  F.  Nixon,  T.  14, 
R.  1 W.,  by  following  up  a bluff  stream,  with  pieces  of  lignite  for  my 
guide,  I found  a bed  of  fair  lignite  about  3 feet  thick,  shaling  to  some 
extent  and  breaking  into  blocks.  Some  of  the  blocks  which  had 
washed  down  stream  seemed  to  stand  weathering  well.  Below  the 
main  bed  is  a lens  of  unusually  hard  and  bright  lignite  about  2 inches 
thick,  preserving  its  woody  structure  and  breaking  evenly  at  right 
angles  to  the  grain.  Sample  No.  20  included  some  of  the  latter. 


48 


LIGNITE. 


The  lignite  rests  on  several  feet  of  clay.  Some  distance  from  here 
in  the  bottom  of  the  main  stream  is  another  stratum  of  apparently 
good  lignite  which  seems  to  be  about  2 feet  thick. 

Mr.  Nixon  informs  me  that  there  are  three  streams  coming  down 
the  bluff  on  his  place  and  that  all  bring  down  pieces  of  lignite. 

A mile  and  a half  west  of  Tolarville  on  land  belonging  to  Mr. 
Henry  Eakins’  mother  there  is  an  outcrop  of  4 feet  of  solid  lignite 
high  in  volatile  matter,  but  unfortunately  gaining  its  solidity  by  inert 
earthy  matter.  This  bed  seems  to  be  of  considerable  extent,  both 
up  and  down  the  ravine.  Mr.  Eakin  thinks  the  thickness  persistent. 
(Sample  No.  22.)  Mr.  Eakin  reports  that  about  60  yards  below  this 
place  the  bed  caught  fire  and  burned  2J  years,  and  that  it  was  finally 
extinguished  by  heavy  rains. 

In  the  ravine  on  the  other  side  of  the  house  some  distance  away 
there  is  a layer  of  2 feet  of  mucky  lignite.  Mr.  Eakin  reports  another 
outcrop  of  lignite  J a mile  north  of  here  on  the  Mark  Shettleworth 
place,  which  also  burnt  for  some  time. 

An  interesting  bed  of  lignite  is  the  one  lying  6 miles  southwest  of 
Lexington  to  the  west  of  the  Ebenezer  road.  This  bed  has  been  on 
fire  for  some  time;  different  people  state  different  periods;  a negro 
who  lives  near  says  he  has  known  it  to  be  burning  for  the  past  12 
years;  others  say  7 years,  5 years,  etc.  - At  present  the  lignite  is 
burning  at  two  different  places  some  40  yards  apart.  The  mephitic 
fumes  come  up  through  joints  in  the  Columbia  loam,  which  is  rendered 
too  hot  to  be  handled.  I could  see  no  flame,  but  both  negroes  and 
whites  assure  me  that  they  have  seen  the  fire.  A negro  living  near 
the  place  says  that  he  has  seen  the  ravine  lighted  up  at  night  like  a 
little  town.  I let  down  a piece  of  rope  a short  distance,  not  to  the 
lignite  bed  however  by  several  feet,  and  the  end  of  it  was  charred. 
All  agree  that  in  wet  weather  and  in  winter  it  bums  more  than  in  dry 
summer,  which  would  seem  to  indicate  a chemical  action  of  water  upon 
some  material,  yet  there  seems  to  be  unmistakable  evidence  of  fire. 
More  probably  the  rainy  season  gives  rise  to  more  steam  from  the  bed, 
which  causes  people  to  believe  it  is  burning  more  in  such  weather. 
As  has  just  been  seen,  in  speaking  of  the  bed  near  Tolarville,  Mr. 
Eakin  stated  that  the  fire  in  that  stratum  was  extinguished  by  heavy 
rains.  The  deposit  around  the  vents  and  the  odor  from  the  burning 
indicate  considerable  sulphur.  The  ash  indicates  a heavy  residue, 


HOLMES  COUNTY. 


49 


in  some  places  even  retaining  the  shaly  stratified  structure  of  the 
lignite.  Much  of  the  deposit  has  already  been  consumed. 

This  bed  is  7J  feet  thick  where  I measured  it  and  probably  a foot 
or  two  more  at  its  greatest  depth,  but  it  soon  becomes  thinner  in 
every  direction.  The  lignite  has  abundant  plant  impressions  and 
splits  readily  into  thin  flakes,  in  fact  it  seems  almost  impossible  to  get 
out  good  solid  blocks  of  it.  The  edges  that  are  exposed  crumble 
badly.  (Sample  No.  21.)  Below  the  lignite  is  a tough  jointed  clay. 

On  Rankin’s  Branch  under  a gravel  bluff  about  1 mile  south  of 
Howard  occurs  a stratum  of  lignite  2 feet  thick,  possibly  thicker. 
This  lignite  contains  veins  of  earthy  matter,  but  otherwise  seems 
good  from  a field  examination  of  wet  samples.  The  blocks  in  the 
branch  appear  to  weather  well.  Following  is  the  section: 


Feet 

Columbia  loam 7 

Lafayette  gravel,  sand  and  clay. .....' 16 

Solid  lignite 2 


As  one  ascends  the  hill  toward  Howard,  an  inch  or  two  of  lignite 
is  seen  cropping  out  above  a blue  clay. 

At  Shenoah  Hill,  3 or  4 miles  north  of  Howard  and  2 or  3 miles 
east  of  Tchula  on  Mrs.  Julia  Harris’s  land,  is  one  of  the  thickest  beds 
of  lignite  I have  seen  in  the  State.  This  mine  was  opened  several 
years  ago  and  a quantity  of  lignite  taken  out ; the  old  tunnel  has  since 
fallen  in,  so  that  it  was  dangerous  to  enter  it.  The  fuel  is  still  visible 
in  part  and  is  said  to  be  4 or  5 feet  thick.  Some  of  the  larger  lumps 
lying  outside  seem  to  have  withstood  weathering  well;  it  was  from 
one  of  these  that  sample  No.  23  was  taken.  This  sample  upon 
analysis  shows  a high  percentage  of  volatile  matter  and  leaves  com- 
paratively little  ash.  Tried  in  the  University  forge,  it  gave  a good 
welding  heat  and  did  not  bum  out  too  rapidly.  The  approach  to 
this  mine  is  easy  and  its  location  convenient  to  the  railroad. 

In  the  road  near  the  old  tunnel  the  lignite  is  again  exposed,  and 
also  at  several  places  up  the  ravine.  A short  distance  up  the  ravine 
from  the  tunnel  the  stratum  is  5 to  6 feet  thick;  still  further  up  it  is 
2£  feet  thick.  Lignite  is  also  said  to  show  at  two  places  across  the 
ridge. 

Above  the  lignite  at  the  tunnel  is  a 2-foot  stratum  of  excellent 
clay,  an  analysis  of  which  is  given  in  Table  13. 


50 


LIGNITE. 


On  the  Pine  Grove  plantation  Mr.  McGee  reports  a 7-foot  outcrop 
of  lignite  on  the  southeast  side  of  the  Funnigusha  Creek. 

Dr.  Eugene  Smith  in  his  field  notes  of  1871  records  a stratum  of 
lignite  4 to  6 feet  thick  in  Sec.  36,  T.  15,  R.  1 E.  The  seam  of  lignite 
was  sometimes  2 feet  above  the  bed  of  the  branch,  sometimes  formed 
the  bed  of  it.  No  doubt  there  are  many  other  outcrops  along  the 
streams  and  ravines  of  the  Bluff  in  this  county.  Fragments  of  lignite 
are  not  infrequently  seen  in  the  streams  issuing  at  the  foot  of  the 
Bluff. 

In  the  northeastern  comer  of  the  county  are  some  deposits  of 
inferior  lignite.  I visited  several  outcrops  on  Mr.  F.  M.  White’s 
land  4 miles  west  of  West,  Sec.  24,  T.  16,  R.  4 E.,  and  Mr.  White  also 
states  that  he  struck  lignite  in  several  wells  near  his  house.  Sample 
No.  38  was  taken  from  a spring  about  J of  a mile  south  of  the  house. 
I could  not  determine  the  thickness,  but  Mr.  White  says  it  is  at  least  3 
feet.  When  dry  this  has  a red  earthy  look.  The  analysis  shows  it 
to  contain  too  much  earthy  matter  and  too  little  fixed  carbon  to  be  of 
any  fuel  value.  Another  bed  on  Mr.  George  Nabors’  place  seemed 
to  be  thin  and  impure. 


CARROLL  COUNTY. 

. I saw  no  lignite  in  Carroll  County.  I was  told  of  its  presence  at 
Brock  in  the  southeastern  part  of  the  county,  but  if  it  exists  there 
it  is  probably  no  better  than  that  in  the  northeastern  part  of  Holmes 
County  near  it.  Dr.  Hilgard  (p.  163)  notes:  “I  have  received  speci*- 
mens  of  iron  pyrites,  evidently  derived  from  a lignite  bed,  from 
Carroll  County,  but  have  been  unable  to  ascertain  the  locality,  or 
particulars.” 


ANALYSES  OF  MISSISSIPPI  LIGNITE. 


/ 


SAMPLES  AND  ANALYSES. 


About  50  samples  of  lignite  were  collected  during  the  summer  of 
1906.  In  two  or  three  cases  it  was  not  practicable  for  me  to  get  the 
sample  myself,  in  which  cases  I had  to  rely  on  others  to  collect  the 
sample  and  send  it  to  the  University.  It  was  the  purpose  to  take 
representative  samples  throughout  the  thickness  of  the  beds,  but 
this  could  not  always  be  done;  often  I had  to  take  my  samples  wher- 
ever I could  get  them.  After  these  samples  had  stood  in  the  labora- 
tory in  open  wooden  boxes  for  several  months  smaller  samples  were 
selected  from  them  and  sent  to  the  Agricultural  and  Mechanical^ 
College  of  Mississippi  for  chemical  analyses.  In  selecting  these 
smaller  samples  several  different  pieces  were  taken  in  each  case  and 
all  large  pieces  of  iron  pyrites  were  excluded.  The  analyses  were 
made  in  the  laboratory  of  the  Agriculture  and  Mechanical  College 
under  the  direction  of  Dr.  W.  F.  Hand.  Here  follows  a table  showing 
the  analyses  of  the  better  Mississippi  lignites ; they  are  on  an  air-dried 
basis : 

TABLE  5. 


ANALYSES  OF  MISSISSIPPI  LIGNITES. 


(Dr.  W.  F.  Hand,  Analyst.) 


No. 

Locality 

Mois- 

ture 

Volatile 

Matter 

Fixed 

Carbon 

Ash 

Total 

Sul- 

phur 

Calor- 

ies 

B.T.U. 

2 

Panola  Co.,  1 m.  from  Tocowa  . 

13.93 

44.65 

35.17 

6.25 

100 

.70 

5,517 

9,930 

5 

Itawamba  Co.,  E.  A.  Palmer,  II 

12.51 

36.55 

38.44 

12.50 

100 

3.27 

4,928 

8,870 

6 

Choctaw  Co.,  W.  A.  Collins 

11.44 

36.57 

38.56 

13.43 

100 

2.05 

5,115 

9,207 

7 

Choctaw  Co.,  Chester 

11.39 

39.79 

38.72 

10.10 

100 

2.83 

5,236 

9,425 

8 

Choctaw  Co.,  Moses  Bridges. . . . 

14.29 

38.90 

37.71 

9.10 

100 

.86 

5,018 

9,032 

9 

Choctaw  Co.,  Patrick  Ray 

10.79 

41.59 

36.54 

11.08 

100 

1.18 

5,311 

9,560 

10 

Choctaw  Co.,  E.  W.  Oswalt 

11.61 

34.61 

42.47 

11.31 

100 

2.66 

5,595 

10,071 

11 

Choctaw  Co.,  Snow’s  field 

11.07 

42.92 

39.70 

6.31 

100 

1.92 

5,526 

9,947 

12 

Winston  Co.,  W.  E.  Huntley 

9.91 

37.08 

36.42 

16.59 

100 

2.95 

4,987 

8,977 

13 

Winston  Co.,  Drip  Spring 

11.59 

37.49 

43.76 

7.16 

100 

1.29 

5,455 

9,819 

14 

Winston  Co.,  C.  L.  Taylor 

14.20 

35.24 

41.80 

8.76 

100 

.63 

5,255 

9,459 

15 

Kemper  Co.,  DeKalb 

11.40 

32.61 

37.00 

18.99 

100 

1.80 

5,112 

9,201 

16 

Kemper  Co.,  Pool’s  mill 

13.61 

37.14 

42.10 

7.15 

100 

2.64 

5,439 

9,790 

17 

Jasper  Co.,  Garlandville 

12.51 

41.40 

33.93 

12.16 

100 

2.77 

5,050 

9,090 

18 

Scott  Co.,  Pearl  River 

13.50 

39.66 

36.50 

10.34 

100 

4.10 

4,972 

8,950 

20 

Holmes  Co.,  G.  F.  Nixon 

13 . 20 

40.16 

32.24 

15.40 

100 

1.20 

5,050 

9,090 

21 

Holmes  Co.,  Burning  bed 

13.87 

36.32 

34.46 

15.36 

100 

1.39 

4,681 

8,426 

22 

Holmes  Co.,  Tolarville 

10.07 

41.71 

22.86 

25.36 

100 

1.64 

4,831 

8,696 

23 

Holmes  Co.,  Shenoah  Hill 

15.22 

42.38 

34.91 

7.49 

100 

.91 

5,112 

9,201 

52 


LIGNITE. 


TABLE  5 — Continued. 

ANALYSES  OF  MISSISSIPPI  LIGNITES — Continued. 


No. 

Locality. 

Mois- 

ture 

Volatile 

Matter 

Fixed 

Carbon 

Ash 

Total 

Sul- 

phur 

Calor- 

ies 

B.T.U 

25 

Panola  Co.,  Tocowa 

11.84 

38.96 

29.36 

19.84 

100 

.69 

4,706 

8,471 

27 

Tate  Co.,  Sarah 

12.01 

38.51 

25.88 

23.60 

100 

1.40 

4,457 

8,022 

30 

Benton  Co.,  J.  C.  Orman 

14.29 

47.38 

30.73 

7.60 

100 

1.26 

4,769 

8,584 

35 

Lafayette  Co.,  near  Caswell 

9.60 

30.54 

28.86 

31.00 

100 

.57 

4,021 

7,238 

39 

Webster  Co.,  3 m.  from  Alva. . . 

13.04 

36.68 

35.62 

14.66 

100 

.48 

4,582 

8,247 

40 

Webster  Co.,  Belief ontaine 

14.90 

39.21 

35.57 

10.32 

100 

.56 

5,065 

9,117 

42 

Calhoun  Co.,  Pittsboro 

13.96 

39.97 

38.58 

7.49 

100 

.56 

5,190 

9,342 

43 

Calhoun  Co.,  Camp  Spring 

12.20 

46.27 

30.86 

10.67 

100 

.76 

5,096 

9,173 

44 

Calhoun  Co.,  John  McPhail 

11.46 

40.74 

37.59 

10.21 

100 

.78 

5,486 

9,875 

45 

Calhoun  Co.,  near  Slate  Spring  . 

12.26 

37.43 

41.94 

6.37 

100 

.94 

5,533 

9,959 

46 

Yalobusha  Co.,  J.  J.  Milton 

12.62 

40.85 

39.94 

6.59 

100 

2.05 

5,392 

9,706 

47 

Lafayette  Co.,  W.  J.  Hogan. . . . 

11.84 

34.15 

35.68 

18.33 

100 

.48 

4,598 

8,276 

48 

Lafayette  Co.,  near  Delay 

14.61 

38.51 

39.10 

7.78 

100 

1 1.28 

5,221 

9,398 

50 

Lafayette  Co.,  R.  V.  Edwards.  . 

14.60 

38.59 

35.21 

11.60 

100 

1.83 

4,878 

8,780 

INTERPRETATION  OF  THE  TABLE. 

These  analyses  need  no  comment  for  the  geologist  or  for  the 
chemist,  but  a few  words  of  explanation  may  be  helpful  for  the  general 
reader,  for  whom  primarily  this  report  is  intended.  The  constituent 
parts  are  shown  in  the  first  four  columns  of  the  table,  the  sum  of  these 
four  giving  a total  of  100  per  cent.  The  second  and  third  columns 
show  the  useful  or  combustible  constituents,  the  volatile  matter  and 
the  fixed  carbon.  The  first  and  fourth  columns  show  the  worthless 
or  non-combustible  parts  of  the  lignite,  namely  the  moisture  or  water 
and  the  ash  or  inert  matter  left  after  burning.  By  observing  the 
relative  proportion  of  combustible  and  non-combustible  constituents 
one  gets  an  idea  of  the  value  of  the  lignite.  The  readiest  way  to  do 
this  however  is  to  glance  at  the  last  column  in  the  table,  which  shows 
the  B.  T.  U.,  or  British  thermal  units,  per  pound;  the  higher  the 
B.  T.  U.  the  greater  the  heating  capacity  of  the  lignite  in  general. 
The  calories  maybe  found  by  dividing  the  B.  T.  U.  by  1.8.  The 
sulphur,  which  is  an  impurity  in  coal  or  lignite,  has  been  determined 
separately  and  recorded  in  another  column. 

MISSISSIPPI  LIGNITES  COMPARED  WITH  OTHERS. 

By  comparing  these  analyses  with  those  of  the  lignite  of  other 
States,  made  by  the  U.  S.  Geological  Survey  at  St.  Louis,  it  will  be 
seen  that  the  better  Mississippi  lignites  are  the  equal  of  the  brown 
lignites  of  North  Dakota  and  Texas,  and  are  not  very  greatly  inferior 
to  the  black  lignites  of  Colorado,  Montana  and  Wyoming. 


TABLE  6. 

COMPARATIVE  ANALYSES  OF  LIGNITES. 
(By  U.  S.  Geol.  Survey  and  Dr.  W.  F.  Hand.) 


No. 

State 

Moisture 

Volatile 

Matter 

Fixed 

Carbon 

Ash 

5 

B.  T.  U. 

1 

North  Dakota. . . 

10.03 

38.12 

39.95 

11.90 

1.76 

9,562 

2 

North  Dakota. . . 

12.01 

40.62 

39.36 

8.01 

1.08 

9,693 

1 

Texas. 

13.40 

42.75 

29.00 

14.85 

1.04 

9,358 

2 

Texas 

24.48 

38.17 

28.94 

8.41 

.53 

8,489 

10 

Mississippi 

11.61 

34.61 

42.47 

11.31 

2.66 

10,071 

13 

Mississippi. ...... 

11.59 

37.49 

43.76 

7.16 

1.29 

9,819 

23 

Mississippi ... 

15.22 

42.38 

34.91 

7.49 

.91 

9,201 

44 

Mississippi 

11.46 

40.74 

37.59 

10.21 

.78 

9,875 

48 

Mississippi 

14.61 

38.51 

39.10 

7.78 

1.28 

9,398 

1 

Colorado 

16.77 

35.18 

44.29 

3.76 

.54 

10,652 

1 

Montana 

9.05 

36.70 

43.03 

11.22 

1.76 

10  777 

1 

Wyoming 

17.89 

37.81 

40.75 

3.55 

.63 

10,3*0 

This  table  includes  all  the  lignite  analyses  recorded  by  the  Coal- 
testing Plant  at  St.  Louis  which  carried  with  them  a determination 
of  the  B.  T.  U.  A few  other  analyses  of  North  Dakota  and  Texas 
lignite  records  on  page  264  seem  to  be  no  better.  However,  in  Dr. 
Wilder’s  reports  on  the  North  Dakota  lignites,  where  a much  larger 
number  of  analyses  are  given,  there  are  many  lignites  which  show 
43  to  45  per  cent  of  fixed  carbon,  and  a few  47  per  cent.  The  calorific 
values  were  not  determined.  Only  five  lignites  in  the  Mississippi 
list  show  above  40  per  cent  of  fixed  carbon,  the  highest  being  43.76 
per  cent.  The  five  lignites  in  Table  6 represent  as  many  different 
counties,  and  with  one  exception  are  the  best  in  their  respective 
counties. 

WORTHLESS  LIGNITES. 


For  the  sake  of  completeness  of  record  there  is  given  below  a 
table  of  analyses  of  inferior  or  worthless  lignites,  samples  of  which 
were  collected  during  the  past  summer: 


TABLE  7. 

ANALYSES  OF  INFERIOR  OR  WORTHLESS  LIGNITES. 
(W  F.  Hand,  Analyst.) 


No. 

Locality 

Moisture 

Volatile 

Matter 

Fixed 

Carbon 

. Ash 

S 

3 

Itawamba  Co.,  4J  m.  from  Fulton 

11.55 

33.70 

29.52 

25.23 

3.27 

4 

Itawamba  Co.,  E.  A.  Palmer,  I 

8.48 

16.67 

13.81 

61.04 

2.81 

19 

Yazoo  Co.,  Freerun 

8.72 

34.64 

22.84 

33.80 

2.76 

24 

Tallahatchie  Co.,  B.  M.  Baker 

10.45 

32.20 

30.64 

26.71 

6.16 

31 

Benton  Co.,  J.  D.  Rutledge 

7.48 

23.75 

20.74 

48.03 

.53 

32 

Benton  Co.,  Shelby  Cr.  Church 

5.54 

19.81 

11.06 

63.59 

3.02 

33 

Lafayette  Co.,  Billingsley’s  shop 

7.42 

20.94 

22.43 

49.21 

.87 

34 

Lafayette  Co.,  Tallahatchie  River 

9.35 

25.35 

20.50 

44.80 

2.09 

37 

Lafayette  Co.,  Old  Wyatte 

9.82 

24.56 

26.41 

39.21 

1.63 

38 

Holmes  Co.,  near  West 

7.24 

38.49 

14.06 

40.21 

.76 

54 


LIGNITE. 


MOISTURE. 

The  moisture  in  the  air-dried  samples,  as  will  be  seen  by  a refer- 
ence to  Table  5,  ranges  from  9.60  to  15.22  per  cent.  The  average 
moisture  of  the  33  samples  given  in  that  table  is  12.58  per  cent. 
This  denotes  the  moisture  left  in  the  samples  after  they  have  been 
dried  in  the  air  without  artificial  heat.  When  taken  fresh  from  the 
earth  they  contain  much  more  moisture.  Many  of  the  Mississippi 
lignites  lie  below  strata  of  sand  and  thus  become  saturated  with  the 
water  which  percolates  through  these  strata.  Springs  are  often 
found  flowing  out  just  above  the  beds  of  lignite  or  from  the  beds 
themselves.  I took  no.  sealed  samples  from  the  lignite  beds  myself, 
but  after  I had  finished  my  field  work  I wrote  back  for  nine  samples 
from  as  many  of  the  best  or  most  convenient  deposits.  I requested  that 
duplicate  samples  be  sealed  in  Mason  fruit  jars  at  the  outcrops  imme- 
diately upon  removal  from  the  strata,  giving  such  instruction  for 
obtaining  the  samples  as  I hoped  would  make  the  conditions  of 
collecting  as  nearly  uniform  as  possible.  One  of  these  sets  of  sealed 
samples  was  sent  to  the  Agricultural  and  Mechanical  College  of 
Mississippi,  the  other  to  the  Geological  Survey  of  Illinois.  Below  are 
tabulated  the  results  of  the  moisture  determinations  from  these 
samples : 

TABLE  8. 

MOISTURE  IN  FRESH  LIGNITES. 

(Determinations  by  Dr.  W.  F.  Hand  and  Dr.  S.  W.  Parr.) 


No. 

Locality 

A.  & M.  Coll,  of  Miss. 
(By  Dr.  W.  F.  Hand.) 

Geol.  Survey  of  III. 
(By  Dr.  S.  W. 
Parr.) 

Total. 

Air-dried 

Further 
dried  at 
110° 

Total 

14 

Winston  Co.,  C.  L.  Taylor..  . 

27.32 

22.35 

49.67 

48.70 

23 

Holmes  Co.,  Shenoah  Hill. . . 

10.45 

21.35 

31.80 

43.40 

25 

Panola  Co.,  Tocowa * 

11.15 

21.05 

32.20 

47.91 

43 

Calhoun  Co.,  Camp  Spring.. . 

24.20 

19.70 

43.90 

44.09 

46 

Yalobusha  Co.,  J.  J.  Milton.. 

10.19 

15.26 

25.45 

49.25 

48 

Lafayette  Co.,  near  Delay  . . . 

31.33 

31.33 

50.66 

50 

Lafayette  Co.,R.  V.  Edwards 

25.54 

25.54 

51.58 

The  average  of*the  total  moisture  in  the  fresh  samples  according  to 
Dr.  Hand’s  determination  is  34.27  per  cent,  according  to  Dr.  Parr’s 
determination  it  is  47.8  per  cent.  Dr.  Wilder  found  the  average  for  a 


ASH  IN  LIGNITE. 


55 


large  number  of  North  Dakota  samples  to  be  30  per  cent.  Thus  it  will 
be  seen  that  the  moisture  in  lignite  is  a serious  consideration,  especially 
in  transportation,  for  a large  part  of  the  expense  of  transportation  is 
for  hauling  useless  water. 

ASH. 

Some  of  the  Mississippi  lignites  leave  compaiatively  little  ash 
upon  burning,  while  others  leave  a rather  high  percentage.  See 
Table  5.  The  average  of  the  33  lignites  in  that  table  is  12.5  per 
cent  of  ash,  or  leaving  out  the  three  impurest  the  average  of  30  samples  * 
is  11  per  cent  of  ash.  The  average  of  the  seven  brown  lignites  from 
North  Dakota  and  Texas,  determined  by  the  U.  S.  Geological  Survey 
at  St.  Louis,  is  12.7  of  ash.  From  these  purer  lignites  shown  in  Table 
5 there  are  all  grades  of  impurity  to  mere  lignitic  shales  and  clays. 
See  Table  7.  The  earthy  impurity  which  makes  ash  may  occur  in 
lignite  in  two  ways;  first,  thoroughly  disseminated  throughout  the 
mass;  second,  deposited  in  the  cracks,  fissures  and  laminae  of  the 
lignite  as  bands  of  clay,  sand  or  other  earthy  matter.  In  the  latter 
case  the  impurity  is  readily  observed  in  a dry  specimen,  in  the  former 
it  is  often  difficult  of  detection  without  an  analysis.  ' 

The  composition  of  the  ash  from  the  lignites  may  be  seen  from  the 
following  table: 

TABLE  9. 


ANALYSES  OF  ASH  FROM  LIGNITE. 
(Dr.  W.  F.  Hand,  Analyst.) 


No.  of  Lignite 

14 

23 

25 

43 

46 

48 

50 

Silicon  dioxide  (Si02)  

29 

.10 

22. 

.95 

63.85 

51. 

82 

35 

.00 

22. 

.66 

35.10 

Aluminum  oxide  (AI2O3)  

13 

.45 

12. 

,37 

13.25 

26. 

98 

17 

.00 

14 

.88 

15.23 

Iron  oxide  (Fe2Os)  

21 

.00 

19. 

00 

10.95 

7. 

12 

29 

.00 

20. 

.62 

23.35 

Calcium  oxide  (CaO)  

22 

.80 

21. 

,37 

2.50 

6. 

07 

4, 

.55 

15. 

20 

8.62 

Magnesium  oxide  (MgO) 

.19 

97 

.90 

22 

1. 

.50 

2. 

90 

1.99 

Sulphur  trioxide  (SO3)  

8 

.53 

14. 

70 

4.46 

5. 

45 

6, 

.34 

19. 

89 

12.30 

Undetermined 

4, 

.93 

8. 

64 

4.09 

2. 

34 

6. 

.61 

3. 

85 

3.41 

Total 

100 

100 

100 

100 

100 

100 

100 

Hilgard  (p.  161)  gives  the  following  analysis  of  the  ash  from  a 
lignite  found  on  Hughes’  Branch  on  the  edge  of  the  Potlockney 
bottom,  Lafayette  County: 


56 


LIGNITE. 


Analysis  of  Ash  of  Lignite  from  Hughes’  Branch. 


Insoluble  matter  (sand  and  silex) 59.24 

Potash trace. 

Soda 2.52 

Lime 8.83 

Magnesia 73 

Oxide  of  iron,  and  alumina 25.79 

Chloride,  carbonic  and  sulphuric  acids,  and  loss 2.89 


100 


SULPHUR. 


The  percentage  of  sulphur  in  the  lignites  may  be  seen  by  a refer" 
ence  to  Table  5.  In  some  of  the  samples,  Especially  those  from 
Calhoun  and  Webster  Counties,  it  is  very  small;  in  others  it  is  larger, 
two  samples  showing  over  3 per  cent.  The  average  of  the  33  samples 
is  1.53  per  cent ; leaving  out  three  samples  which  contain  more  than 
j of  the  whole  amount  the  average  of  30  samples  is  1.32  per  cent. 
This  seems  to  be  considerably  larger  than  the  average  for  the  North 
Dakota  lignites.  Five  analyses  of  Nebraska  lignites  made  by  Mr. 
Ernest  F.  Burchard  (p.  280)  show  an  average  of  1.16  per  cent  of 
sulphur.  Many  good  coals  show  a higher  percentage  of  sulphur  than 
the  Mississippi  lignites. 


SPECIFIC  GRAVITY. 


The  specific  gravity  of  a few  of  the  lignites  was  determined.  The 
results,  showing  an  average  specific  gravity  of  1.422,  are  tabulated 
below : 


TABLE  10. 

SPECIFIC  GRAVITY  OF  LIGNITES. 


(Determinations  by  Dr.  W.  F.  Hand.) 


No. 

Locality 

Specific 

Gravity 

14 

Winston  Co.,  C.  L.  Taylor 

1.453 

23 

Holmes  Co.,  Shenoah  Hill 

1.326 

25 

Panola  Co.,  Tocowa 

1.415 

43 

Calhoun  Co.,  Camp  Spring 

1.433 

46 

Yalobusha  Co.,  J.  J.  Milton 

1.452 

48 

Lafayette  Co.,  Delay 

1.452 

50 

Lafayette  Co.,  R.  V.  Edwards 

1.425 

Burchard  (p.  279)  gives  the  specific  gravity  of  Nebraska  lignites, 
after  having  dried  in  the  air,  as  1 . 28  to  1 . 35. 


ANALYSES  BY  DR.  PARR. 


57 


ANALYSES  BY  DR.  PARR. 

The  following  analyses  made  by  Dr.  S.  "W.  Parr  of  the  University 
of  Illinois  were  sent  to  me  after  this  report  had  gone  to  the  printer; 
hence  full  use  of  the  data  could  not  be  made  in  the  preceding  pages. 
The  method  of  collecting  the  seven  samples  sent  to  him  has  already 
been  described  under  the  head  of  Moisture.  It  will  be  observed  that 
he  first  determined  the  total  amount  of  moisture  in  the  samples  as 
received,  and  then  determined  the  other  constituents  on  a dry  basis. 
The  British  thermal  units  were  determined  with  the  Mahler  apparatus. 
The  fact  that  they  seem  so  much  higher  than  in  the  other  analyses  is 
due  to  the  difference  in  method  of  analyses,  Dr.  Parr  having  used 
thoroughly  dried  lignite  and  Dr.  Hand  air-dried  lignite.  Averages 
are  given  in  the  last  line  of  the  table. 


TABLE  11. 

ANALYSES  OF  MISSISSIPPI  LIGNITES. 
. - (Dr.  S.  W.  Parr,  Analyst.) 


9 


No. 

Total 

Moisture 

Analyses  of  dry  lignite 

Carbon 

Avail- 

able 

Hydrogen 

Ash 

Sulphur 

Calories 

B.  T.  U. 

14 

48.70 

60.56 

1.85 

12.55 

.76 

5,548 

9,986 

23 

43.40 

59.10 

2.70 

14.44 

.84 

5,728 

10,310 

25 

' 47.91 

59.70 

2.42 

12.48 

.73 

5,676 

10,217 

43 

44.09 

58.83 

1.86 

13.35 

4.18 

5,488 

9,878 

46 

49.25 

64.90 

2.55 

5.23 

1.17 

6,149 

11,068 

48 

50.66 

62.96 

2.03 

9.00 

1.28 

5,815 

10,467 

50 

51.58 

57.38 

1.76 

13.08 

2.00 

5,289 

9,520 

Av. 

47.80 

60.49 

2.17 

11.44 

1.56 

5.670 

10,206 

USES  OF  LIGNITE, 


GENERAL, 

It  would  seem  both  from  analyses  and  from  experience  that  the 
better  qualities  of  lignites  may  be  used  for  practically  all  the  purposes 
for  which  bituminous  coal  may  be  employed.  One  exception  should 
be  made  to  this  statement;  most  of  the  lignites  are  unsuitable  for 
coking.  Lignite  has  long  been  in  use  in  Germany  and  other  Euro- 
pean countries,  and  is  at  present  being  used  in  North  Dakota,  Neb- 
raska, Texas  and  other  parts  of  the  United  States.  It  should  be 
remembered  in  substituting  lignite  for  coal  that  modifications  of 
fire-boxes  and  furnaces  are  sometimes  desirable. 

IN  OPEN  GRATES. 

Some  of  the  better  qualities  of  lignite  when  ‘dry  produce  a good 
steady  fire  in  the  open  grate.  For  this  purpose  a chimney  of  good 
draft  is  desirable,  otherwise  disagreeable  fumes  may  escape  into  the 
room.  No  series  of  tests  of  Mississippi  lignites  in  the  open  grate  were 
conducted  by  the  Survey.  The  writer  however  tried  in  his  own 
study  a scuttle  of  fuel  composed  of  Calhoun  County  lignites  and 
obtained  a very  steady  satisfactory  fire  which  burnt  up  completely, 
leaving  no  clinkers  in  the  grate.  The  four  lignites  which  composed 
this  fire  were  Nos.  42-45;  by  referring  to  Table  5 it  will  be  seen  that 
they  contain  very  little  sulphur,  and  less  than  the  usual  amount  of 
ash,  and  that  they  all  run  above  9,100  B.  T.  U.  In  case  of  poorer 
qualities  of  lignite  the  addition  of  a little  wood  or  stone  coal  would  be 
helpful. 

IN  STOVES. 

Good  lignite  may  take  the  place  of  wood  and  coal  in  stoves  both 
for  heating  and  cooking.  The  same  precaution  should  be  taken  as  in 
the  case  of  stone  coal,  namely  to  see  that  there  are  no  leaks,  otherwise 
troublesome  gases  may  escape  into  the  room.  Mr.  Thomas  Pettigrew, 
engineer  for  the  asylum  at  Jamestown,  North  Dakota,  writes:  “The 

use  of  lignite  coal  at  this  institution  started  in  1890.  Since  that  time 
we  have  used  it  continually  for  generating  steam,  and  for  the  past 


IN  THE  FORGE. 


59 


eight  years  have  used  it  exclusively  for  cooking  in  the  general  kitchen 
of  the  institution.  Lignite  coal  can  be  burned  in  any  furnace  that 
bums  hard  or  soft  coal.”  (Sec.  Bien.  Report,  p.  176.)  Many  of  the 
large  stove  factories  now  have  on  the  market  stoves  especially  designed 
for  using  lignite. 

IN  THE  FORGE. 

Any  of  the  medium  lignites  will  give  in  the  forge  a heat  sufficient 
for  sharpening  plows  and  drawing  iron,  and  the  better  qualities  will 
give  a welding  heat.  Some  of  the  failures  of  lignite  in  the  forge 
reported  in  this  State  were  no  doubt  due  to  the  fact  that  the  lignite 
was  used  too  “green”  or  wet.  The  admixture  of  a small  quantity 
of  charcoal  or  bituminous  coal  is  recommended  in  case  the  dry  lignite 
fails  to  give  satisfactory  results.  I had  the  following  four  lignites 
tried  in  the  University  shop  under  my  observation: 


TABLE  12. 

LIGNITES  TRIED  IN  THE  FORGE. 


No. 

County 

Moisture 

Volatile 

Matter 

Fixed 

Carbon 

Ash 

Sulphur 

B.  T.  U. 

10 

Choctaw 

11.61 

34.61 

42.47 

11.31 

2.66 

10,071 

23 

Holmes 

15.22 

42.38 

34.91 

7.49 

.91 

9,201 

40 

Webster 

14.90 

39.21 

35.57 

10.32 

.56 

9,117 

50 

Lafayette 

14.60 

38.59 

35.21 

11.60 

1.83 

8,780 

The  samples  were  the  laboratory  specimens  which  had  been  in- 
doors for  nine  months.  All  four  gave  a good  ^weld.  No.  50  was 
chosen  especially  because  of  its  comparatively  low  B.  T.  U.;  the 
result  however  was  satisfactory.  All  gave  off  sparks,  showing  that 
some  of  the  matter  was  being  blown  away  by  the  blast  from  the 
bellows. 


FOR  BURNING  BRICK. 

Lignite  is  used  in  North  Dakota  for  burning  brick  at  Dickinson, 
Williston,  Washburn,  Burlington,  New  Salem  and  other  places.  The 
results  obtained  are  1,000  red  bricks  burnt  at  a temperature  of  1,500 
degrees  with  1,500  pounds  of  lignite.  In  some  of  these  plants  forced 
draft  is  used,  in  others  only  natural  draft.  (Wilder,  Sec.  Bien.  Report, 


60 


LIGNITE. 


p.  185.)  In  Mississippi  there  are  many  excellent  brick  clays  in  the 
vicinity  of  lignite  deposits.  Doubtless  there  are  also  some  good 
pottery  clays  near  the  Mississippi  lignite  beds.  Three  samples  of 
clays  associated  with  the  Holmes  County  lignites  were  analyzed  with 
the  results  given  in  Table  No.  13.  Clay  No.  1 occurs  with  lignite 
No.  20;  clay  No.  2 occurs  with  lignite  No.  21;  and  clay  No.  3 occurs 
with  lignite  No.  23.  Clay  No.  3,  associated  with  the  Shenoah  Hill 
lignite,  is  of  excellent  quality  and  would  doubtless  make  good  fire 
brick.  The  other  two  samples  contain  rather  high  percentages  of  iron 
oxide  which  would  cause  them  to  burn  red. 

TABLE  13. 

ANALYSES  OF  CLAYS  ASSOCIATED  WITH  HOLMES  COUNTY  LIGNITES. 


(W.  F.  Hand,  Analyst.) 


Constituents. 

1 

2 

3 

Silicon  dioxide  (Si02) 

68.64 

68.56 

69.67 

Aluminum  oxide  (AI2O3) 

11.62 

9.77 

17.43 

Iron  oxide  (Fe203) 

5.95 

9.07 

2.82 

Ljme  oxide  (CaO) 

1.43 

1.25 

.68 

Magnesium  oxide  (MgO) 

1.53 

1.30 

.24 

Sulphur  trioxide  (SO3) 

0.00 

0.00 

tr. 

Volatile  matter  (C02) 

7.25 

6.32 

6.70 

Moisture 

3.52 

3.60 

2.32 

UNDER  BOILERS. 


Lignite  is  successfully  used  for  direct  firing  under  boilers.  In 
some  cases  forced  drafts  are  used,  in  others  the  natural  draft  is  relied 
upon.  Automatic  stokers  are  to  be  recommended  when  large  quan- 
tities of  fine  lignite  are  used,  and  in  the  case  of  dry  powdered  lignite 
the  fuel  might  be  introduced  by  means  of  a blast.  When  feeding 
fresh  or  “green”  lignite  it  is  desirable  to  fire  only  one  side  of  the 
furnace  at  a time,  as  the  high  percentage  of  moisture  tends  to  reduce 
the  heat  temporarily.  Special  modifications  of  furnaces  are  some- 
times used  for  burning  lignite;  the  purpose  being  to  bring  the 
volatile  matter  to  a combustion  heat  before  it  escapes.  One  of 
these  devices  is  an  arch  of  fire  brick  built  over  the  front  of  the  fire- 
box, which  standing  at  a high  heat  ignites  the  gases  about  it. 

No  boiler  tests  of  the  Mississippi  lignite  have  yet  been  conducted.  . 
I quote  the  results  of  a comparative  test  made  in  August,  1894,  by 
engineer  Thomas  Pettigrew  between  Youghiogheny  coal  and  Dakota 
lignite.  (Wilder,  p.  19.) 


61 


UNDER  BOILERS. 

TABLE  14. 

LIGNITE  TEST  AT  JAMESTOWN,  NORTH  DAKOTA. 
(By  Thomas  Pettigrew.) 


Youghiogheny 
coal,  Aug.  6, 
1894. 

Lignite  coal, 
Aug.  8,  1894. 

Duration  of  test,  hours 

7i 

74 

8 

Average  temperature  of  feed  water,  °F 

74 

Coal  burned,  pounds 

1,400 

I, 243 

II. 21 

3,370 

Combustible,  pounds 

3,170 

Ash,  per  cent 

5.93 

Coal  burned  per  square  foot  of  grate  per  hour,  pounds 

8.29 

18.72 

Water  evaporated  at  temperature  of  feed,  pounds 

8,837 

14,157 

Water  evaporated  in  pounds  per  pound  of.coal,  actual  condition. 
Water  evaporated  in  pounds  per  pound  of  combustible 

6.312 

7.1 

4.2 

4.46 

Temperature  of  flue  gases,  °F 

510 

510 

Value  of.  coal 

$1.00 

$0,665 

Boiler  6 feet  in  diameter  by  16  feet  long,  with  30  4J-inch  flues;  grate  surface  4 feet  5 inches 
by  5 feet;  coal  3 days  from  mine ; cost  of  Youghiogheny  lump  at  Jamestown,  $6.80;  of  lignite,  $2.80. 


This  with  other  tests  goes  to  show  that  Dakota  lignite  has  about 
63  per  cent  of  the  evaporative  power  of  Youghiogheny  coal,  70  per 
cent  of  that  of  Missouri  coal,  and  75  per  cent  of  Iowa  coal.  Con- 
sidering the  relative  cost  of  lignite  and  coal  it  will  be  seen  that  economy 
may  be  on  the  side  of  lignite. 

The  following  comparative  table  between  bituminous  coal  and 
lignite  under  the  boiler  is  compiled  from  the  report  of  the  tests  made  by 
the  Coal-testing  Plant  of  the  United  States  Geological  Survey  at  St. 
Louis  in  1904: 

TABLE  15. 

COMPARATIVE  TESTS  OF  COAL  AND  LIGNITE. 

(By  the  U.  S.  Geological  Survey.) 


No. 

Kind 

Locality 

Water  evaporated 
per  hr.  ( in  lbs.). 

Horsepower 

developed 

2 

Bituminous  coal 

Carbon  Hill,  Alabama.  . . . 

6,335 

216.4 

4 

Bituminous  coal 

Wheatcraft,  Kentucky — 

6,076 

211 .7 

2 

Bituminous  coal 

Bonanza,  Arkansas 

5,268 

5,355 

180.5 

1 

Black  lignite 

Wyoming 

186.6 

1 

Black  lignite 

Colorado 

4,311 

3,175 

1,666 

151.0 

1 

Brown  lignite 

North  Dakota.  . . 

108.9 

1 

Lignite  briquettes 

Texas 

57.3 

The  North  Dakota  lignite  used  in  this  test  has  a calorific  value 
considerably  below  that  of  many  of  the  Mississippi  lignites. 


62 


LIGNITE. 


BY  BRIQUETTING. 

Lignite  and  waste  coal  have  long  been  made  into  briquettes  in 
Germany  and  other  European  countries  where  fuel  is  scarce  and 
consequently  dear.  By  this  process  the  waste  products  of  mines  are 
converted  into  firm  hard  fuel,  which  may  be  handled  and  burned  as 
any  other  coal.  Mechanical  pressure  is  employed  and  generally 
some  binding  material  is  mixed  with  the  powdered  coal  or  lignite, 
such  as  pitch  of  various  kinds,  asphalt,  creosote,  tar,  rosin,  petroleum, 
molasses  and  milk  of  lime.  It  is  desirable  that  if  possible  the  bond 
should  be  combustible  and  thus  add  to  the  fuel  value  of  the  briquettes. 

Specimens  of  Texas  brown  lignite  were  sent  by  Dumble  (p.  223) 
to  Europe  to  be  tested  for  briquettes.  The  results  were  unsatisfactory 
when  pressure  alone  was  used,  but  were  entirely  satisfactory  when 
bond  was  employed.  A sample  of  lignite  from  Pike  Co.,  Alabama, 
was  sent  to  a briquetting  syndicate  in  Germany  and  molded  into 
briquettes  with  entire  success.  Some  of  these  briquettes,  which  look 
much  like  anthracite  coal,  may  be  seen  at  Tuscaloosa.  (Smith, 
private  letter.) 

Several  experiments  in  briquetting  American  lignites  with  various 
kinds  of  pitch  were  tried  by  the  Coal-testing  Plant  at  St.  Louis, 
some  of  which  were  successful  and  some  of  which  were  not.  The 
following  table  is  compiled  from  the  report  of  that  plant : 


TABLE  16. 

EXPERIMENTS  IN  BRIQUETTING  LIGNITE. 
(By  U.  S.  Geological  Survey.) 


No. 

Kind 

Locality 

Per  cent 
of  pitch 

General 

character 

Behavior  on 
weathering 

Behavior  on 
burning 

1 

Black 

Colorado 

10 

Hard  and  lus- 
trous, but  brittle 

Slight  deteriora- 
tion  

Satisfactory,  little 
disintegration. 

1 

Black 

New  Mexico. . . 

12 

Very  unsatisfac- 
tory  

Crumbles 

Disintegrates. 

2 

Black 

New  Mexico. . . 

7 

Crumbly 

Disintegrates .... 

Disintegrates. 

1 

Brown 

North  Dakota . 

10 

Porous,  little  co- 
hesion  

Disintegrates .... 

Disintegrates. 

1 

Black 

Wyoming 

9 

Fair,  porous 

Fair 

Satisfactory. 

FOR  COKING  AND  GAS. 


63 


BY  COKING. 

Some  varieties  of  lignite  are  said  to  yield  a coke  which  can  be 
used  in  the  production  of  iron.  The  great  majority,  however,  do  not 
fuse  sufficiently  in  the  oven  to  produce  coke.  Even  the  excellent 
black  lignite  or  subbituminous  Laramie  coal  of  the  Marshall  dis- 
trict in  Colorado  has  not  been  successfully  used  for  coke.  No  ex- 
periments with  a view  to  coking  have  been  made  on  the  Mississippi 
lignites,  but  it  is  highly  improbable  that  they  could  be  utilized  advan- 
tageously in  that  way  without  the  addition  of  some  other  material. 
Dumble  (p.  231)  concludes  that  certain  varieties  of  Texas  brown  coal 
will  form  a coke,  if  charred,  with  bond  of  caking  coal  and  coal  tar 
pitch,  which,  even  if  it  should  not  prove  sufficiently  firm  for  the  blast 
furnace,  will  nevertheless  answer  for  fuel  for  locomotives  and  for 
other  similar  purposes. 

FOR  ILLUMINATING  GAS. 

Lignite  may  be  used  for  the  manufacture  of  illuminating  gas, 
and  has  been  so  used  to  some  extent  on  the  continent  of  Europe. 
Some  of  the  Mississippi  specimens  run  quite  high  in  volatile  matter, 
one  having  more  than  47  per  cent  in  the  air-dried  sample;  others  are 
high  in  fixed  carbon.  Burchard  (pp.  280,  281)  found  lignite  from 
Dakota  County,  Nebraska,  to  yield  12,279  cubic  feet  of  gas  per  ton; 
this  was  the  average  result  of  ten  tests.  This  is  as  high  a yield  as 
the  cannel  coals  and  considerably  higher  than  the  bituminous  coals 
which  he  quotes.  The  lignite  he  used  was  comparatively  low  in 
volatile  matter  and  high  in  fixed  carbon.  He  found  the  illuminating 
power  of  the  gas  weak,  however,  and  suggested  that  it  would  need 
enriching  to  make  a good  illuminant.  Dumble  (p.  227)  considers 
many  of  tha  Texas  brown  coals  capable  of  producing  illuminating  gas. 

FOR  PRODUCER  GAS. 

Recently  it  has  been  shown  that  the  brown  lignites  make  excellent 
producer  gas.  The  Coal-testing  Plant  of  the  U.  S.  Geological  Survey 
at  St.  Louis  conducted  a series  of  experiments  upon  bituminous  coals 
and  lignites  with  most  gratifying  results.  The  brown  lignites  tested 
came  from  North  Dakota  and  Texas  and  are  no  better  than  many  of 
the  Mississippi  lignites,  and  are  inferior  to  some  of  them.  The  results 


64 


LIGNITE. 


of  some  of  these  tests  may  be  seen  in  the  two  following  tables.  The 
first  shows  a comparison  of  tests  of  coal  made  with  the  boiler  and  the 
gas-producer;  the  second  shows  a comparison  between  bituminous 
coal  and  brown  lignite  in  the  gas  producer: 


TABLE  17. 

COMPARATIVE  TESTS  WITH  BOILER  AND  GAS-PRODUCER. 
(Reduced  from  Coal-testing  Plant  Report,  p.  978.) 


Coal 

Lbs. of  coal  burn- 
ed per  sq.  ft.  of 
grate  surface 
per  hour 

B.  T.  U.  per  lb. 
of  coal  used 

Electrical  horse- 
power delivered 
to  switch-board 

i Lbs.  of  coal  per 
electrical  horse- 
power per  hour 

Boiler 

plant 

Gas 

producer 

Boiler 

plant 

Gas 

producei 

Boiler 

plant 

Gas 

producer 

Boiler 

plant 

Gas 

producer 

Alabama,  No.  2. .- 

21.54 

7.78 

12,555 

13,365 

213.7 

200.6 

4.08 

1.64 

Colorado,  No.  1 

17.80 

7.56 

12,577 

12,245 

149.1 

200.2 

4.84 

1.71 

Ilinois,  No.  3 

21.23 

8.41 

12,857 

13,041 

198.1 

199.6 

4.34 

1.79 

Indiana,  No.  1 

22.39 

9.08 

13,377 

13,037 

220.0 

199.9 

4.13 

1.93 

Kentucky,  No.  3 

21.75 

8.92 

13,036 

13,226 

208.9 

200.5 

4.22 

1.91 

Missouri,  No.  2 

25.00 

7.96 

11,500 

11,882 

205.6 

198.6 

4.93 

1.71 

West  Virginia,  No.  1 

18.94 

7.36 

14,198 

14,396 

196.7 

200.4 

3.90 

1.57 

Wyoming,  No.  2 

26.51 

9.50 

10,897 

10,656 

182.0 

201.2 

5.90 

2.07 

TABLE  18. 

PRODUCER-GAS  TESTS  OF  COALS  AND  LIGNITES. 
(Reduced  from  Coal-testing  Plant  Report,  pp.  1,316-23.) 


Sample 

Cubic  ft.  of  gas 
per  lb.  of  dry 
coal. 

\B.  T.  U.  per  lb. 
of  dry  coal 

1 3.  T.  U.  per  cu- 
bic ft.  of  gas 

Lbs.  of  dry  coal 
per  electric  h’se- 
power  per  hour 

Alabama,  No.  2,  bituminous.  ... 

60.4 

13,365 

149.2 

1.64 

Illinois,  No.  3,  bituminous 

53.9 

13,041 

154.8 

1.79 

Kentucky,  No.  3,  bituminous. . . 

55.1 

13,226 

155.9 

1.91 

North  Dakota,  No.  2,  lignite.  . . 

41 .5 

11,255 

188.5 

2.29 

Texas,  No.  1,  brown  lignite 

42.7 

10,928 

169.7 

2.22 

Texas,  No.  2,  brown  lignite 

51.6 

11,086 

156.2 

1.71 

I quote  a summary  of  the  results  from  the  report  of  the  committee 
in  charge  of  these  tests  at  St.  Louis  (pp.  29,  30) : 

“Probably  the  most  important  of  the  results  accomplished  has 
been  the  demonstration  that  bituminous  coals  and  lignites  can  be  used 
in  tho  manufacture  of  producer  gas,  and  that  this  gas  may  be  consumed 
in  internal-combustion  engines  for  the  development  of  power,  with  a 
fuel  economy  of  over  50  per  cent.  The  use  of  producer  gas  made  from 


FOR  PRODUCER  GAS. 


65 


anthracite  coal,  from  coke,  or  from  charcoal  for  power  purposes,  and  of 
producer  gas  from  bituminous  coal  in  steel  works,  etc.,  is  no  new 
story;  but  the  demonstration  of  the  possibility  of  utilizing  bituminous 
coal  and  lignite  in  the  gas  engine  is  a decided  advance  in  the  economical 
combustion  of  coal  for  power.  It  has  been  shown  by  comparative 
tests  that  the  power-producing  efficiency  of  a number  of  bituminous 
coals,  when  converted  into  gas  and  used  in  the  gas  engine,  is  2J  times 
what  it  is  when  used  under  boilers  in  the  production  of  steam  power. 
In  other  words,  1 ton  of  coal  used  in  the  gas-producer  plant  has 
developed,  on  a commercial  scale,  as  much  power  as  2\  tons  of  the 
same  coal  used  under  Heine  boilers  with  a simple  Corliss  engine.  The 
results  were  measured  by  the  amount  of  electrical  horsepower  per 
hour  delivered  at  the  switchboard. 

“Of  scarcely  less  importance  are  the  results  obtained  in  the  use  of 
lignite  in  the  gas-producer  plant.  It  has  been  shown  that  a gas  of 
higher  quality  can  be  obtained  from  lignite  than  from  high-grade 
bituminous  coals,  and  that  1 ton  of  lignite  used  in  a gas-producer 
plant  will  yield  as  much  power  as  the  best  Pennsylvania  or  West 
Virginia  bituminous  coals  used  under  boilers.  It  appears,  in  fact 
that  as  coals  decline  in  value  when  measured  by  their  steam-raising 
power,  they  increase  in  value  comparatively  as  a fuel  for  the  gas 
producer.  The  brown  lignites  on  which  tests  were  made  at  the  coal- 
testing plant  were  from  North  Dakota  and  Texas,  and  the  unexpect- 
edly high  power-producing  qualities  developed  by  them  in  the  gas 
producer  and  gas  engine  give  promise  of  large  future  developments  in 
these  and  other  States  in  the  far  West,  where  extensive  but  almost 
untouched  beds  of  lignite  are  known  to  exist.” 

The  character  of  the  gas  produced  by  lignites  in  the  gas  producer 
may  be  seen  from  the  following  analyses  taken  from  the  same  report 
(p.  1,323): 


66 


LIGNITE. 


TABLE  19. 

ANALYSES  OF  PRODUCER  GAS  FROM  LIGNITE. 
(By  U.  S.  Geological  Survey.) 

Average  composition  of  gas  by  volume. 


Gas 

Brown  Lignites 

N.  Dakota  No.  2 

Texas  No.  1 

Texas  No.  2 

Carbonic  acid  (Co2) 

8.69 

11.10' 

9.60 

Oxygen  (02) 

.23 

.22 

.20 

Carbonic  oxide  (CO) 

20.90 

14.43 

18.22 

Hydrogen  (H2) 

14.33 

10.54 

9.63 

Marsh  gas  (CH<) 

4.85 

7.48 

4.81 

Nitrogen  (N2) 

51.02 

56.22 

57.53 

Total 

100.02 

99.99 

99.99 

FOR  TAR  . 

Tar  may  be  made  from  lignite  as  from  bituminous  coal.  It  is 
obtained  as  a by-product  in  the  manufacture  of  gas  from  lignite. 

FOR  FERTILIZER. 

For  several  years  a Meridian  company  used  the  lignite  from 
Russell,  Lauderdale  County,  as  a constituent  in  the  manufacture  of  a 
land  fertilizer;  this  has  since  been  abandoned,  presumably  because 
it  was  not  sufficiently  rich  in  fertilizing  elements.  It  may  well  be 
doubted  whether  lignite  has  sufficient  fertilizing  value  to  make  it  of 
economic  importance  to  the  farmer,  except  perhaps  locally  on  the 
farms  where  it  occurs.  In  case  of  its  local  use  it  would  be  prudent 
to  experiment  with  it  before  using  it  very  heavily,  or  else  by  chemical 
examination  determine  that  the  ash  does  not  contain  enough  noxious 
constituents  to  be  harmful  to  the  crops. 


ACKNOWLEDGMENTS* 


A list  of  some  of  the  more  important  works  bearing  on  Mississippi 
geology  and  on  American  lignite  is  given  in  the  bibliography.  To 
most  of  these  I am  indebted  and  to  several  of  them  deeply  indebted. 
I wish  to  thank  Mr.  A.  F.  Crider,  Director  of  the  State  Geological 
Survey  of  Mississippi,  for  many  valuable  suggestions  and  for  a kindly 
interest  in  this  report  from  the  beginning  of  the  field  work  to  the 
completion  of  the  printing.  To  Dr.  W.  F.  Hand  of  the  Agricultural 
and  Mechanical  College  of  Mississippi  I owe  the  general  direction  and 
supervision  of  the  lignite  analyses.  To  Dr.  S.  W.  Parr  of  the  Uni- 
versity of  Illinois  I am  indebted  for  seven  additional  analyses  of 
lignite.  To  many  people  throughout  the  State  who  gave  me  the 
benefit  of  their  knowledge  of  local  outcrops  and  showed  me  other 
courtesies  during  the  progress  of  the  field  work  I am  under  deep 
obligations. 


INDEX, 


PAGE 

Abbeville 31,32 

Ackerman 15,  21,  39,  40 

Acknowledgments 8,  67 

Age  of  lignite 13 

Airmount 37 

Alabama 12,  13,  61,62,  64 

Alligator  Lake 47 

Alva 38,  52 

Analyses  of  ash  from  lignite. . . 55,  56 

of  clays 20,60 

of  coal 11, 12 

of  lignite 11, 12,  51-57,  59 

of  producer  gas  from  lignite  63-65 
proximate  and  ultimate.  . 11 

Archaean  rocks  not  represented  16 

Arkansas 11 

Ash  from  lignite 55,  56 

Ashland 29 

Bankston 50 

Basis  of  analyses 51,  57 

Bellefontaine 20,  38,  52 

Benton  Co 23,  28,  52,  53 

Bibliography 45 

Big  Black  River 8 

Bluff,  the 14,  15,  19 

Bluff  formation,  see  Loess 16,  19 

Brandon 44 

Briquettes  of  lignite 61,  62 

British  thermal  units 11,  52 

Brock  50 

Brown  coal 10 

B.  T.  U 11,  52 

Burchard,  E.  F 56,63 

Burke 37 

Burning  beds  of  lignite 24,  25 

27,  43,  48,  51 

Burning  brick  with  lignite 59,  60 

Buttahatchie  River 35 

Calhoun  Co 35-37,  39,  47,  52, 

54,  56,  58 

Calhoun  Sta 46 

Camp  Spring 23,  36,  52,  54,  56 


PAGE 

Canton 46 

Carroll  Co 50 

Caswell  P„  O 32,  52 

Charleston 37,  38 

Chemical  properties  of  lignite.  . 10-12 

Chester 20,23,39,  40,  51 

Choctaw  Co .27,  39,  40,  47,  51,  59 

Claiborne  Co 45 

Claiborne  formation 21,  22,  44 

Clay * 20,49,60 

Coal  (stone) 9, 13 

Coal  Bluff 24,  26,46,47 

Coal  not  found  in  Mississippi.  9,  26 
Coal-testing  plant  at  St.  Louis  1 1 ,62-66 

Coffeeville 15,37 

Coking 63 

Cold  water  River 30 

Colorado 13,  52,  53,  62,  63 

Columbia  formation. . 17,  18-21,  47-49 

Combustible  constituents 11,  52 

Common  errors  about  lignite.  . 26 

Comparative  analyses  of  coal 

and  lignite 11,  12 

Comparative  tests  of  coal  and 

lignite 61 

Contents 4-6 

Couparle 46 

Cretaceous  (Tuscaloosa)  . 4 . . . . 17,  21 

Crider,  A.  F 1,  3,  8,  20,  21,  23,  34 

35,  45,  67 

Cross  sections  of  lignite  area. . . 17 

Cullum 42 

Dabney 38 

Daleville 44 

Definitions 9 

DeKalb 20,  23,  41,42,51 

Delay 32,  52,  54,  56 

Delta,  the 15,  16 

DeSoto  Co 27,  28 

Differences  between  lignite  and 

coal/ 9 

Dip  of  strata 17 

Drip  spring 41,  51 

Dumble,  E.  T 12,  62,  63 


INDEX. 


69 


PAGE 

Elevations 15, 16 

Ellard 35 

Embry 38 

Errors  regarding  lignite 26 

Estimating  the  quantity 25 

Experiments  for  producer  gas  . 63-66 

Experiments  in  briquetting 62 

Experiments  in  the  forge 59 


PAGE 

Illinois 

12,64 

Illuminating  gas 

63 

Impurities \ 

11,55 

Index 

68-71 

Indiana 

64 

Inferior  lignites 

53 

Interpretation  of  analyses 52 

Itawamba  Co 

.21,34,51,53 

Iowa  coal 

61 

Fertilizer,  lignite  for 

66 

Field  work 

14 

Finger 

30 

Floyd,  Benton  Co 

29 

Forge,  lignite  in  the .... 

59 

Freerun 

46,53 

Fulton 

35,53 

Funnigushna  Creek 

50 

Gannett,  Henry 

15 

Garland  ville 

44,51 

Gas  from  lignite 

63-66 

Geddy’s  Chapel 

29 

Geological  age  of  lignite. 

13 

commission 

1 

corps 

1 

formations  of  Miss . . 

16-23 

map 

. 22,  after  71 

sections 17,  21 

, 23,  26,  47,  49 

Glenn,  L.  C 

19 

Grand  Gulf  formation . . . 

21,45 

Greenwood  Springs 

35 

Grenada 

21 

Hand,  W.  F 12,20 

, 51-57,  60,  67 

Harper,  L 24,  28 

,31,36,  44-46 

Hernando 

15 

Highest  R.  R.  point  in  State . . 16 

Hilgard,  E.  W — 17-19, 

29,  33,  34,  37, 

39,  40,  43 

-45,  50,  55,  56 

Hinds  Co 

44 

Holly  Springs 

15,  20,  28 

Holmes  Co 21,  23- 

25,  27,  47-51 , 

53 

, 54,  56,  59,  60 

Howard 

49 

Hughes’  Branch 

55,56 

Jackson 14,  44,  47 

Jackson  formation 21,  44,  47 

Jasper  Co 44,51 

Kemper  Co 41,  51 

Kentucky 11,  12,  14,  19,  64 

Kirkwood 46 

Lafayette  Co.  . 18,  23,  31-34,  52-56,  59 

Lafayette  formation 16-22,  49 

LaGrange 18, 19 

Lauderdale  Co 25,  27,  42-44,  66 

Lawshill 28 

Letter  of  transmittal 3 

Lexington 15,  24,  27,  48 

Lignite,  analyses  of...  11,  12,  51-57,  59 

area  in  Mississippi 14-22 

ash  from 55  56 

exhibited  at  St.  Louis. ...  35 

in  forge 59 

in  grates  and  stoves 58 

moisture  in 54,  55 

of  Mississippi 14 

origin  of 13 

properties  of 10-12 

test  at  Jamestown,  N.  D. . 60,  61 

uses  of -58-66 

worthless 53 

Lignite-bearing  formations ... . 21 

Lignitic  clay 9,  20,  23 

List  of  localities 28-50 

List  of  tables 7 

Localities  by  counties 28-50 

Localities  examined 14 

Lockhart 20,  27,  42,  43 

Loess 16,  19 

Logan,  W.  N 1,8,20,47 


70 


INDEX. 


PAGE 

Louisiana. 14 

Louisville 15,  20,  40,  41 


Mabry,  T.  0 8,  18 


McCain 

McCreath,  A.  S, 
McGee,  W.  J . . . 
Madison  Co ... . 

Map 

Marion 

Marshall  Co ...  . 
Mechanicsburg . 
Memphis 


38 

12 

18 

46 

22,  after  71 

43 

28 

46 

15 


Meridian 14,  43,  66 

Mississippi  lignites  compared 

with  others 52,  53 

Mississippi  River 14,  15 

Missouri  coal 61,  64 

Mode  of  occurrence 14,  22 

Moisture  in  lignite 11,  54 

Moody’s  Branch 44 

Montana 52,53 

Morton 47 


Nebraska  lignite 56,  58,  63 

Neshoba  Co 41 

New  Mexico 13,  62 

New  Prospect 40 

Nirvana 30,  31 

No  lignite  in  the  Delta 15 


North  Dakota 12,  13,  23,  24,  27, 

52-56,  58-66 

Northern  Lignitic.  See  Wilcox.  16—21 


Old  Town 

Olive  Branch 

Open  grates,  lignite  in 

Orange  sand 

Origin  of  lignite 

Oxford 


37 

15 

58 

18 

13 

15,  18,  20,21,34 


Paleozoic  age 17 

Panola  Co 30,  51,  52,  54,  56 

Paris 34 

Parr,  S.  W 12,  54,  57,  67 

Patison  Creek 33 


PAGE 

Payne’s 38 

Pearl  River. 24,  26,  44,  46,  51 

Pennsylvania 12,  41,  65 

Perkins  ville  41 

Pettigrew,  Thomas 58,  60,  61 

Philadelphia 41 

Phoenix 46 

Physical  properties  of  lignite.  . 10 

Pinegrove 29 

Pine  Valley 37 

Pittsboro 20,  23,  35,  36,  52 

Pleasant  Hill 27,  28 

Pontotoc  Co 34 

Pool’s  mill 42,51 

Potlockney 33,  55 

Producer  gas 63-65 

Quantity,  estimation  of 25 

Quantity,  variation  in 25,  41 

Rankin 44 

Rankin  Co # 44 

Rankin’s  Branch 49 

Reform 40 

Roofing  over  lignite 22 

Royston’s  Creek 28 

Russell 43,  66 

Safford,  J.  M 18,19 

Salem 29 

Samples „ 51,54 

Sandy  Creek 33 

Sarah 30,  52 

Sardis 15 

j Schouna  River 37 

] Scott  Co 46,  47,  51 

Shawnee 23,28 

Shelby  Creek 30 

Shelby  Creek  Church 23,  29,  53 

Shenoah  Hill 23,  49,  51,  54,  56,  60 

Slate  Spring 35,  36,  52 

Smith,  E.  A 50,62 

Snow  Creek 29 

Sowashee  Creek 43 

! Specific  gravity 10,  56 

Spinks 42 


Springs  associated  with  lignite. . 22,  54 


INDEX. 


71 


PAGE 

Stoves,  lignite  in 58,  59 

Suanlovey  Creek 44 

Sulphur  in  lignite 56 

Tables,  list  of 7 

Tallahatchie  Co 37,  38,  53 

Tallahatchie  River 28,  31,  53 

Tar 66 

Tate  Co 30,  52 

Tchula 23,49 

Tennessee 13,  18,  28 

Tests  with  boiler  and  gas  pro- 
ducer  63 

Texas 12,  13,  52,  53,  55,  58,  61-65 

Thickest  lignite  beds 24 

Thickness  of  beds 24 

Tilden 34,36 

Tippah  Co 29 

Tocowa 30,  31,  51,  52,  54,  56 

Tolarville 48,51 

T opography  of  the  lignite  area . . 15,16 

Top  ton 25,43 

T rue  coal  not  found  in  Miss ...  9 

Trusty  P.  O 35 

Tula 33 

Turkey  Creek 37 

Tuscaloosa  formation 21,  22 


PAGE 

Uncertainty  of  beds 24 

Under  boilers 60 

U.  S.  Geol.  Survey...  11,  12,  17,19,  52, 
53,55,56,  61-66 


Uses  of  lignite. . . . 

58-66 

Vicksburg 

14,  15,  45 

Vicksburg  formation 21 

Wailes,  B.  L.  C. . . 

....'.  .29,37,  41*45 

Warren  Co 

45 

Water  in  lignite. . 

11,54 

Webster 

40 

Webster  Co 

. . .20,  38,  52,  56,  59 

West 

15,50,53 

West  Virginia 

64,65 

Wilcox  formation . 

16-21 

Wilder,  F.  A 

24,  27,  53,  54,  59,  60 

Winston  Co 

. . .40,  41,  51,  54,  56 

Wolf  River 

29 

Worthless  lignites, 

63 

Wyatte,  old 

23,  31,  53 

Wyoming 

13,  52,  53,  61, 62,  64 

Yalobusha  Co 

37,52,  54,  56 

Yazoo  Co 

46,53 

Yocona  River. . . . , 

31,32 

Eutaw  sr 


*4  1 

y 

y 

Psi 

i 

1 1 v 

t ! 

+ k 

* \ 

i i 

r 

? 


Mississippi 

State  Geological  Survey 

ALBERT  F.  CRIDER,  DIRECTOR. 


BULLETIN  NO.  4 


CLAYS  OF  MISSISSIPPI 


PART  II. 


Brick  Clays  and  Clay  Industry  of  Southern  Mississippi 


By  WILLIAM  N*  LOGAM  V 


r 

L< 


1908 


• — ♦♦♦- 


i 

._i 


BRANDON  - NASHVILLE 


STATE  GEOLOGICAL  COMMISSION. 


His  Excellency,  E.  F.  Noel Governor 


Dunbar  Rowland Director  of  Archives  and  History 

A.  A.  Kincannon Chancellor  of  the  State  University 

J.  C.  Hardy President  Agricultural  and  Mechanical  College 

Joe  N.  Powers State  Superintendent  of  Education 


GEOLOGICAL  CORPS. 


Albert  F.  Crider. 
William  N.  Logan 
E.  N.  Lowe 


Director 

Assistant  Geologist 
Assistant  Geologist 


LETTER  OF  TRANSMITTAL. 

Governor  E.  F.  Noel,  Chairman , and  Members  of  the  Geological  Com- 
mission: 

Gentlemen: — I submit  herewith  a report  on  the  brick  clays  of 
southern  Mississippi,  prepared  by  Dr.  W.  N.  Logan,  and  recommend 
that  it  be  printed  as  Bulletin  No.  4.  A report  on  the  brick  clays  of 
northern  Mississippi  was  published  in  1907  as  Bulletin  No.  2.  In  that 
report  considerable  attention  was  given  to  the  origin  and  technology  of 
clays  as  well  as  to  the  status  of  the  brick  industry  of  northern  Missis- 
sippi. Bulletin  No.  4 completes  the  study  of  the  brick  clays  of  the 
State  and  should  be  read  in  connection  with  Bulletin  No.  2. 

The  common  brick  clays  contribute  largely  to  the  industrial  devel- 
opment of  the  State,  and  their  importance  will  become  greater  year  by 
year  as  the  valuable  timber  becomes  scarce. 

Dr.  Logan  has  pointed  out  in  his  report  that  the  brick  industry, 
especially  in  southern  Mississippi,  is  yet  in  its  infancy.  Many  of  the 
plants  are  small  and  rather  crude  methods  are  employed  in  the  manu- 
facture of  brick.  This  condition  will  gradually  change  for  the  better 
as  the  demand  for  brick  increases.  In  most  of  the  large  towns  up-to- 
date  plants  have  been  erected  to  meet  the  growing  demands  for  a sub- 
stantial building  material. 

The  brick  clays  of  southern  Mississippi,  east  of  Pearl  River  are,  as  a 
general  rule,  more  difficult  to  handle  than  those  west  of  Pearl  River 
and  in  northern  Mississippi.  Some  of  the  plants  have  suspended 
operations  because  it  is  so  difficult  to  dry  and  burn  the  brick  without 
cracking.  As  pointed  out  by  Dr.  Logan,  this  trouble  can  be  largely 
overcome  by  mixing  the  tough  plastic  clay  with  coarse,  sharp  sand, 
and  storing  the  mixture  in  covered  sheds  and  allowing  it  to  weather 
thoroughly  before  using. 

Very  respectfully, 

A.  F.  Crider,  Director. 

Jackson,  Mississippi,  August  1,  1908. 


TABLE  OF  CONTENTS. 


PAGE 

Letter  of  transmittal 3 

List  of  illustrations 9 

List  of  tables 11 

Introduction 13 

Geological  formations  13 

Claiborne 13 

Tallahatta  buhrstone 14 

Lisbon 14 

Undifferentiated  Claiborne . . . 14 

Jackson 14 

Vicksburg 14 

Grand  Gulf 14 

Lafayette 15 

Loess 15 

Columbia 15 

Port  Hudson 15 

Recent  alluvium ' 15 

Clay -bearing  Formations : 1 16 

Jackson  clays 16 

Grand  Gulf  clays 16 

Lafayette  clays 17 

Loess  clays 18 

Columbia  clays * 18 

Recent  alluvial  clays 19 

Brick  clays  and  clay  industry  of  southern  Mississippi  by  counties.  20 

Adams  County 20 

Geology 20 

Clays  and  clay  industry 24 

Natchez 24 

Amite  County 25 

Geology 25 


CONTENTS. 


5 


Brick  clays  and  clay  industry  of  southern  Mississippi  by  counties. 


Amite  County — Continued.  page 

Clays  and  clay  industry 25 

Liberty 25 

Gloster 26 

Peoria 26 

Claiborne  County 26 

Geology 26 

Clays  and  clay  industry 27 

Port  Gibson 27 

Clarke  County 28 

Geology 28 

Clays  and  clay  industry 30 

Quitman 30 

Copiah  County 31 

Geology 31 

Clays  and  clay  industry 32 

Crystal  Springs 32 

Hazlehurst 32 

Covington  County 32 

Geology 32 

Clays  and  clay  industry 33 

Mount  Olive 33 

F orrest  County . . * 34 

Geology 34 

Clays  and  clay  industry 34 

Hattiesburg 34 

Maxie 36 

Franklin  County 36 

Geology 36 

Clays  and  clay  industry 37 

Meadville 37 

Greene  County 37 

Geology 37 

Clays  and  clay  industry 38 

Leakesville 38 

Hancock  County 39 

Geology 39 


6 


CONTENTS. 


Brick  clays  and  clay  industry  of  southern  Mississippi  by  counties. 

Hancock  County — Continued.  page 

Clays  and  clay  industry . ; 39 

Bay  St.  Louis 39 

Harrison  County 40 

Geology 40 

Clays  and  clay  industry 40 

Landon 40 

Biloxi 41 

Saucier 42 

Ten-Mile 43 

Tchouticabouif  River 44 

Jackson  County 44 

Geology 44 

Clays  and  clay  industry 45 

Moss  Point 45 

Orange  Grove 45 

Ocean  Springs 46 

Jasper  County 46 

Geology 46 

Clays  and  clay  industry 46 

Jefferson  County 47 

Geology 47 

Clays  and  clay  industry 47 

Stonington 47 

Jefferson  Davis  County 48 

Geology 48 

Clays  and  clay  industry 49 

Jones  County 49 

Geology 49 

Clays  and  clay  industry ' 50 

Ellisville 50 

Laurel 51 

Lamar  County 52 

Geology 52 

Clays  and  clay  industry 52 

Lumber  ton 52 

Lawrence  County 53 


CONTENTS. 


7 


Brick  clays  and  clay  industry  of  southern  Mississippi  by  counties. 

Lawrence  County — Continued.  page 

Geology 53 

Clays  and  clay  industry 53 

Lincoln  County 53 

Geology 53 

Clays  and  clay  industry 54 

Brookhaven 54 

Norfield 54 

Marion  County 55 

Geology 55 

Clays  and  clay  industry 55 

Columbia 55 

Perry  County 55 

Geology 55 

Clays  and  clay  industry 56 

Pearl  River  County 56 

Geology 56 

Clays  and  clay  industry 56 

Lacy 56 

Caledonia 57 

Pike  County 57 

Geology 57 

Clays  and  clay  industry 57 

Summit 57 

McComb  City 57 

F ernwood 58 

Osyka 58 

Magnolia '.  58 

Simpson  County 58 

Geology 58 

Clays  and  clay  industry 58 

Smith  County 59 

Geology 59 

Clays  and  clay  industry 59 

Taylorsville 59 

Burns 60 

Wayne  County 60 


8 


CONTENTS. 


Brick  clays  and  clay  industry  of  southern  Mississippi  by  counties. 

Wayne  County — Continued.  page 

Geology 60 

Clays  and  clay  industry 61 

Waynesboro * 62 

Wilkinson  County 63 

Geology 63 

Clays  and  clay  industry 63 

Centerville 64 

Woodville 64 

Directory  of  Mississippi  brick  manufacturers 65 

Bibliography 67 

Acknowledgments 68 

Index 69 


LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS. 


PLATE  OPP.  PAGE 

I.  A — Loess  Bluff,  Natchez 20 

B — Grand  Gulf,  gravel  and  conglomerate,  Natchez 20 

II.  A — Pinnacles  of  sand  protected  by  gravels,  Natchez 22 

B— Plant  of  the  Natchez  Brick  Manufacturing  Co., 

Natchez 22 

III.  A — Plant  of  the  Concord  Brick  Manufacturing  Co., 

Natchez.  24 

B — Clay -pit  of  the  Concord  Brick  Manufacturing  Co., 

Natchez 24 

IV.  A — Kilns  of  the  Mount  Olive  Brick  Manufacturing  Co., 

Mount  Olive 32 

B — Clay-pit  of  the  Mount  Olive  Brick  Manufacturing  Co., 

Mount  Olive 32 

V.  Plant  of  the  Crymes  Brick  Manufacturing  Co.,  Hat- 
tiesburg   34 

VI.  A — Power  Plant  of  the  Summit  Brick  Manufacturing  Co., 

Summit '38 

B— Clav-pit  of  the  Leakesville  Brick  Manufacturing  Co., 

Leakesville 38 

VII.  A — Plant  of  the  Landon  Brick  and  Tile  Co.,  Landon 40 

B — Clay -pit  of  the  Landon  Brick  and  Tile  Co. , Landon ....  40 

VIII.  A — Kilns  of  the  Imperial  Brick  Company,  Biloxi 42 

B — Clay-pit  of  the  Imperial  Brick  Co.,  Biloxi 42 

IX.  A — Soft-mud,  horse-power  brick  machine,  Moss  Point.  . . 44 

B — Edging  brick  on  open  yard,  Moss  Point 44 

X.  A — Grand  Gulf  white  clay,  Stonington 46 

B — Pressed  brick  made  from  Grand  Gulf  clay,  Stonington . 46 

XI.  A— Plant  of  the  Laurel  Brick  and  Tile  Co.,  Laurel 50 

B — Lafayette  overlying  Grand  Gulf  clay,  Ellisville 50 

XII.  A — Plant  of  the  Lumberton  Brick  Manufacturing  Co., 

Lumberton 52 

B — Steam  shovel  used  by  the  Lumberton  Brick  Manu- 
facturing Co.,  Lumberton 52 


10 


LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS. 


PLATE  OPP.  PAGE 

XIII.  A — Brick  plant  of  A.  Seavey  and  Sons,  Brookhaven 54 

B — Flashed  brick  made  by  the  Brookhaven  Pressed  Brick 

Co.,  Brookhaven 54 

XIV.  Building  constructed  of  Brookhaven  pressed  brick,  Silver 

Creek 56 

XV.  A — Lafayette  capped  with  Columbia  loam,  near  Wood- 

ville 58 

B — Ferrell  brick  kilns,  Osyka 58 

XVI.  A — Grand  Gulf  in  creek-bank  at  Golden’s  Water  Mill, 

Taylorsville 60 

B — Stonington  Brick  Manufacturing  Plant,  Stonington ...  60 

XVII.  Power  Plant  of  the  Waynesboro  Brick  Company,  Waynes- 
boro 


62 


LIST  OF  TABLES. 


PAGE 

1.  Average  analysis  of  Jackson  clays 16 

2.  Average  analysis  of  Grand  Gulf  clays 17 

3.  Analysis  of  sandy  Lafayette  clay 17 

4.  Average  chemical  composition  of  Columbia  clays 18 

5.  Average  composition  of  alluvial  clays 19 

6.  Analysis  of  loess  from  Natchez 25 

7.  Analyses  of  Grand  Gulf  clays  and  sandstones 27 

8.  Analyses  of  Claiborne  marls,  Clarke  County 29 

9.  Analysis  of  Barnett  clay 29 

10.  Composition  of  Jackson  marls 29 

11.  Analysis  of  Vicksburg  limestone,  Clarke  County 30 

12.  Analyses  of  Quitman  clays 31 

13.  Analysis  of  Mount  Olive  clay 33 

14.  Analysis  of  Hattiesburg  yellow  loam 35 

15.  Analysis  of  Hattiesburg  gray  clay 35 

16.  Analysis  of  Maxie  clay 36 

17.  Analysis  of  Grand  Gulf  clay,  Cassidy’s  Bluff 37 

18.  Analyses  of  Leakesville  clays 38 

19.  Analyses  of  Landon  brick-clays 41 

20.  Analyses  of  Imperial  Brick  Company’s  clays,  Biloxi 41 

21.  Analyses  of  brick  clays  from  Biloxi. 42 

22.  Analysis  of  Saucier  clay 43 

23.  Saucier  clay  dilution 43 

' 24.  Analysis  of  Ten-Mile  clay 43 

25.  Analysis  of  clay  from  Tchouticabouff  River 44 

26.  Analysis  of  Orange  Grove  clay 45 

27.  Analysis  of  Ocean  Springs  clay 46 

28.  Analysis  of  Stonington  white  clay 48 

29.  Analysis  of  Ellisville  clay 50 

30.  Analysis  of  Ellisville  clay 51 

31.  Analysis  of  Laurel  gray  clay 51 

32.  Analyses  of  Grand  Gulf  clays 55 

33.  Analysis  of  white  Lafayette  clay  from  near  Taylorsville 60 

34.  Analyses  of  Jackson  marls  from  Wayne  County 61 

35.  Analysis  of  Vicksburg  marl,  Wayne  County 61 

36.  Analyses  of  Waynesboro  clays '. 63 

37.  Specific  gravity  of  some  Mississippi  brick  clays 64 


INTRODUCTION 


In  the  year  1906  the  writer  began  the  investigation  of  the  brick- 
clays  of  Mississippi  in  connection  with  the  State  Geological' Survey. 
The  work  of  the  first  season  was  confined  to  the  territory  lying  north 
of  the  Alabama  and  Vicksburg  Railroad.  The  results  of  these  inves- 
tigations were  published  in  1907  in  a report  entitled,  “Brick  Clays  and 
Clay  Industry  of  Northern  Mississippi.”  The  report  includes  a dis- 
cussion of  the  technology  of  clays;  a report  on  the  geology  of  clays,  and 
also  a discussion  of  the  brick  industry  of  northern  Mississippi. 

The  present  report  includes  a discussion  of  the  geology  of  the  brick- 
clays  and  clay  industry  in  the  counties  lying  south  of  the  Alabama  and 
Vicksburg  Railroad.  The  brick  industry  in  many  of  these  counties 
is  either  entirely  undeveloped  or  only  in  an  experimental  stage.  In 
some  of  the  counties,  however,  bricks  have  been  manufactured  success- 
fully for  many  years.  As  this  section  of  the  State  is  undergoing  a 
rapid  industrial  development,  and  as  it  is  dependent  largely  upon  brick 
for  building  material  of  a more  permanent  class,  we  may  expect  that 
the  brick  industry  in  southern  Mississippi  will  be  greatly  developed  in 
the  near  future.  This  preliminary  report  should  be  read  in  connection 
with  the  one  mentioned  above. 

The  counties  which  are  included  in  the  report  are  as  follows: 


Adams 

Franklin 

Jefferson  Davis 

Pearl  River 

Amite 

Greene 

Jones 

Pike 

Claiborne 

Hancock 

Lamar 

Simpson 

Clarke 

Harrison 

Lawrence 

Smith 

Copiah 

Jackson 

Lincoln 

VvT  ay  ne 

Covington 

Jasper 

Marion 

Wilkinson 

F orrest 

Jefferson 

Perry 

GEOLOGICAL  FORMATIONS. 

The  geological  formations  of  southern  Mississippi  are  the  Claiborne, 
the  Jackson,  the  Vicksburg,  the  Grand  Gulf  (including  the  Pascagoula), 
the  Lafayette,  the  Port  Hudson,  the  Loess  and  the  Columbia. 

Claiborne. — The  outcrop  of  the  Claiborne  extends  in  a belt  across 
the  State,  the  northern  boundary  running  from  the  northern  part  of 


14 


CL. AYS  OF  MISSISSIPPI. 


Clarke  County  to  the  southern  part  of  Grenada  County.  The  width 
of  the  outcrop  increases  toward  the  northwest.  West  of  Grenada 
County  the  formation  is  concealed  by  the  alluvial  deposits  of  the  Y azoo 
basin,  and  it  has  never  been  found  in  thfe  hills  north  of  Grenada 
County. 

The  Claiborne  represents  one  of  the  stages  of  the  Eocene  epoch  of 
the  Tertiary  period.  In  Mississippi  the  Claiborne  has  been  divided 
into  the  Tallahatta  buhrstone,  the  Lisbon  and  the  undifferentiated 
Claiborne. 

The  Tallahatta  buhrstone  consists,  in  some  localities,  of  hard,  white 
sandstones  and  claystones.  In  other  localities  the  formation  is  com- 
posed largely  of  ferruginous  sands  but  slightly  cemented,  and  contain- 
ing numerous  fossils.  In  some  places  the  rocks  are  chertv  in  character, 
with  layers  of  chert  interbedded  with  sandy  clays. 

The  Lisbon  formation  consists  of  sands,  usually  white,  containing 
calcareous  material.  The  formation  also  contains  greenish-colored 
marls  and  lignitic  clays.  The  marls  are  usually  decidedly  fossiliferous. 
For  the  chemical  composition  of  these  clays  see  “Geology”  of  Clarke 
County. 

The  undifferentiated  Claiborne  consists  of  marls,  sands  and  clays. 

Jackson. — The  Jackson  formation  is  composed  largely  of  clays, 
marls  and  sands.  The  clays  usually  contain  crystals  of  selenite  in  con- 
siderable abundance.  These  clays  contain,  in  places,  the  remains 
of  a large,  extinct,  sea-animal,  called  the  Zeuglodon.  The  sands  of  the 
Jackson  are  interbedded  with  beds  of  lignite  or  lignitic  clays.  The 
outcrops  of  the  Jackson  and  the  overlying  Vicksburg  form  what  is 
known  as  the  “Central  Prairie”  belt  of  the  State.  The  area  of  out- 
crop of  the  Jackson  is  broader  than  that  of  the  Lisbon,  which  lies  to  the 
north. 

Vicksburg. — The  Vicksburg  formation  forms  a narrow  belt  of  out- 
crop on  the  southern  margin  of  the  Jackson  outcrop.  It  consists  of 
layers  of  compact  limestone  intercalated  and  interstratified- with  beds 
of  marl  and  clay.  The  limestone  and  the  marl  are  usually  fossil- 
iferous. 

Grand  Gulf  ( including  Pascagoula ). — The  Grand  Gulf  forms  the 
bed-rock  for  the  greater  part  of  southern  Mississippi.  The  formation 
consists  of  gray,  argillaceous  sands  and  sandstones,  white  quartz- 
rocks,  gravels  and  clays.  The  clays  contain  considerable  organic 


CLAYS  OF  MISSISSIPPI. 


15 


matter  and  are  dark  in  color  in  some  areas.  In  some  exposures  white 
chalk-like  clays  occur.  The  lower  portion  of  the  formation  has  been 
called  the  Pascagoula  by  Smith  and  Johnson  of  the  Alabama  Survey. 

Lafayette. — The  principal  mantle-rock  of  southern  Mississippi 
belongs  to  the  Lafayette  formation.  The  bed-rock  is  everywhere 
mantled  with  Lafayette,  except  where  it  has  been  removed  by  erosion. 
The  formation  consists  of  rounded  quartz-pebbles,  cherts,  mottled 
clays  and  bright-red  or  orange  sands,  usually  cross-bedded  and  lying 
unconformably  upon  the  older  formations. 

Loess.— — The  loess  is  a mantle-rock  formation,  forming  a narrow 
belt  of  territory  along  the  Mississippi  River  and  overlying  the  Lafayette. 
It  exceeds  one  hundred  feet  in  thickness  in  some  places.  It  thins 
rapidly  as  the  distance  from  the  river  increases.  The  loess  is  com- 
posed of  a fine  brown  silt  which  contains  irregular  concretions  of  lime 
and  numerous  gastropod  shells.  It  forms  a large  portion  of  the  bluffs 
at  Natchez  and  other  points  along  the  border  of  the  Mississippi  flood- 
plain. 

Columbia. — Overlying  the  loess  and  the  Lafayette  is  a brown  or 
yellow  loam  which  rests  unconformably  upon  these  two  formations. 
The  upper  portion  of  the  formation  is  generally  a sandy  loam  or  silt. 
The  lower  portion  contains  . a higher  per  cent  of  clay  .substance.  The 
thickness  of  the  formation  rarely  exceeds  ten  or  fifteen  feet.  The 
origin  of  these  loams  is  doubtful.  In  many  places  they  seem  to  be 
only  a residual  deposit  formed  on  the  Lafayette  or  the  loess.  The 
brown  loam,  which  rests  upon  the  surface  of  the  latter,  is  very  similar 
to  it  in  many  respects. 

Port  Hudson. — The  Port  Hudson  formation  consists  of  beds  of  sand, 
marls  and  clays.  It  may  be  of  equivalent  age  with  the  Columbia,  but 
representing  a marine  phase  of  that  formation.  The  term  Pon- 
chartrain  has  been  applied  to  a bed  of  clay  which  is  probably  of  the 
same  age.  These  clays  are  typically  exposed  around  Lake  Pon- 
chartrain  and  extend  along  the  Coast.  The  formation  also  extends 
up  the  Mississippi  probably  to  near  the  Mississippi-Louisiana  State  line. 

Recent  Alluvium. — Alluvial  silts,  sands  and  clays  are  found  in 
beds  of  considerable  thickness  along  the  flood-plains  of  the  rivers, 
particularly  is  this  true  of  the  Mississippi,  the  Pearl  and  the  Pas- 
cagoula. 

Near  the  courses  of  the  streams  sands  and  sandy  loams  were 


16 


CLAYS  OF  MISSISSIPPI. 


deposited  by  the  swifter  waters  of  the  streams.  In  the  inter-stream 
areas  of  the  flood-plains,  where  the  over-flow  water  had  little  velocity, 
clays  and  fine  silts  were  deposited.  The  clays  are  generally  waxy  and 
of  fine  texture.  In  drying  they  shrink  into  cuboidal  forms  which  have 
considerable  space  between  each  cube.  In  undrained  areas  they  con- 
tain iron  concretions  called  “buckshot.” 

CLAY-BEARING  FORMATIONS. 

The  principal  clay-bearing  formations  of  southern  Mississippi  are 
the  Jackson,  the  Grand  Gulf,  the  Lafayette,  the  Columbia  (yellow  and 
brown  loams)  and  the  river  alluvium. 

Jackson  Clays. — The  clays  of  the  Jackson  formation  are  represented 
by  numerous  outcrops  in  the  so-called  “Central  Prairie”  belt  of  the 
State.  The  unweathered  clays  are  usually  bluish-green;  where  they 
are  exposed  for  a period  of  time  they  change  to  a pale  yellow.  In 
some  outcrops  crystals  of  selenite  are  abundant.  When  sufficiently 
weathered  and  properly  tempered  the  Jackson  clays  may  be  used 
successfully  in  the  manufacture  of  brick  by  either  the  stiff-mud  or  the 
soft-mud  process.  The  following  table  shows  the  average  chemical 
composition  of  three  samples  of  Jackson  clay: 

TABLE  No.  J. 

AVERAGE  ANALYSIS  OF  JACKSON  CLAYS. 


Moisture  (H2O) 5.09 

Volatile  matter  (CO2,  etc.)  6.72 

Silicon  dioxide  (S1O2 ) 60.25 

Aluminum  oxide  (AI2O3) 12.65 

Iron  oxide  (Fe20 3) 5.54 

Calcium  oxide  (CaO) 6.69 

Magnesium  oxide  (MgO) 58 

Sulphur  trioxide  (SO3) 40 


Total 97.92 


The  average  amount  of  clay  substance  in  these  samples  is  about 
32  per  cent.  The  amount  of  sand  contained  in  the  clay  is  nearly  41 
per  cent. 

Grand  Gulf  Clays. — The  unweathered  clays  of  the  Grand  Gulf  are 
usually  gray,  with  a greenish  cast.  The  weathered  clays  are  red,  yellow 
and  mottled,  though  in  some  outcrops  they  are  chalk-white.  They  are 
usually  fine  of  grain  and  contain  a large  per  cent  of  finely  divided  sand. 
Some  of  the  Grand  Gulf  clays,  after  being  thoroughly  weathered,  are 
adapted  to  the  manufacture  of' brick  by  any  of  the  processes  of  manu- 
facture. However,  on  account  of  the  minute  size  of  the  constituent 


CLAYS  OF  MISSISSIPPI. 


17 


particles,  the  successful  drying  of  some  of  the  clays  is  attended  with 
difficulties  that  are  hard  to  overcome.  Nearly  all  the  clays  of  the  for- 
mation dry  slowly.  In  some  localities  the  unweathered  clays  contain 
considerable  quantities  of  iron  pyrites.  During  the  process  of  weather- 
ing the  iron  is  either  changed  to  the  sulphate  form  and  leached  out,  or 
it  is  oxidized.  Gypsum,  which  is  present  in  considerable  abund- 
ance in  some  exposures,  is  also  removed  by  the  solvent  action  of  water 
in  weathering.  The  average  chemical  composition  of  four  samples 
of  Grand  Gulf  clay  is  given  in  the  following  table : 

TABLE  No.  2. 

AVERAGE  ANALYSIS  OF  GRAND  GULF  CLAYS. 


Moisture  (H2O) 1.92 

Volatile  matter  (CO2,  etc.) 3.31 

Silicon  dioxide  (SiCh) 74.48 

Aluminum  oxide  (AI2O3) 10.11 

Iron  oxide  (Fe20 3) 4.59« 

Calcium  oxide  (CaO) 46 

Magnesium  oxide  (MgO) .40 

Sulphur  trioxide  (SO  3) 2.18 


Total 97.45 


The  average  amount  of  clay  substance  in  these  clays  is  25.57  per 
cent.  The  amount  of  sand  contained  is  59.02  per  cent. 

Lafayette  Clays. — The  Lafayette  formation  mantles  the  older  for- 
mations in  southern  Mississippi.  At  the  base  of  the  formation  in 
many  places  are  beds  of  clays  which  are  suitable  for  the  manufacture 
of  brick.  These  clays  are  usually  plastic  and  easily  molded.  In  some 
outcrops  they  contain  too  much  gravel  to  be  used  with  success  in  the 
manufacture  of  stiff-mud  brick.  The  clay  dries  more  rapidly  around 
the  pebbles  which  interfere  with  the  wires  in  cutting.  The  clay  is 
generally  best  handled  by  the  soft-mud  process.  The  analysis  of  a 
sandy  type  of  Lafayette  clay  is  given  below: 

TABLE  No.  3. 

ANALYSIS  OF  A SANDY,  LAFAYETTE  CLAY. 


Moisture  (H2O) 2.23 

Volatile  matter  (CO2,  etc.) 3.90 

Silicon  dioxide  (Si02) 79.85 

Aluminum  oxide  (AI2O3) 2.60 

Iron  oxide  (Fe203) 3.75 

Calcium  oxide  (CaO) 1.00 

Magnesium  oxide  (MgO) 15 

Sulphur  trioxide  (SO3) 19 


Total 93.97 


The  amount  of  clay  substance  in  this  sample  is  very  small,  only 
6.58  per  cent.  About  three-fourths  of  the  contents  of  the  clay  are  sand. 


18 


CLAYS  OF  MISSISSIPPI. 


The  bonding  power  of  such  a clay  is  necessarily  low.  Some  of  the 
clays  from  this  formation  contain  a much  higher  per  cent  of  clay  sub- 
stance. 

Loess  Clays. — Loess  is  used  in  a few  places  in  the  State  in  the  manu- 
facture of  brick.  Typical  loess,  especially  that  near  the  Mississippi 
River,  is  so  finely  comminuted  and  contains  so  much  lime  that  bricks 
made  from  it  are  very  easily  broken.  The  loss  of  brick  in  some  kilns 
ranges  from  one-third  to  nearly  one-half.  Where  the  material  has  been 
properly  weathered  a mixture  of  the  loess  and  the  overlying  yellow  loam 
makes  a good,  common  brick.  The  weathered  loess,  which  is  found  on 
the  slopes  of  the  bluffs,  and  that  farther  removed  from  the  Mississippi 
River,  is  much  better  brick  material  than  the  unweathered  loess. 

A great  improvement  in  the  quality  of  the  ware  would  result  from 
the  storing  of  the  clay  in  covered  sheds  and  allowing  it  to  pass  through 
a sweat  before  using.  Storing  the  clay  for  a period  of  two  months 
w~ould  greatly  improve  it.  Still  greater  improvement  would  result 
from  storing  it  for  twelve  months.  The  quality  of  the  ware  and  the  less 
amount  of  broken  w*are  would  pay  the  additional  cost  of  handling  the 
clay. 

Columbia  Clays.  — Under  the  head  of  Columbia  formation  are 
included  loams  and  clays  which  generally  rest  upon  the  surface  of  the 
Lafayette  and  the  loess.  “Brown  loam”  and  “yellow  loam”  are 
terms  which  have  also  been  applied  to  portions  of  the  formation.  The 
origin  of  the  formation  is  in  doubt,  but  it  is  very  probably  derived 
largely  from  the  underlying  formations.  The  Columbia  clays  are  the 
principal  sources  of  brick-material  of  southern  Mississippi.  They 
are  used  mainly  in  the  manufacture  of  brick  by  the  soft-mud  process, 
though  they  are  also  used  for  stiff-mud  and  dry-pressed  brick.  The 
chemical  composition  of  the  Columbia  clay  may  be  seen  in  the  fol- 
lowing analysis,  which  is  an  average  of  four  samples: 


TABLE  No.  4. 


AVERAGE  CHEMICAL  COMPOSITION  OF  COLUMBIA  CLAYS. 


Moisture  (H2O) 

Volatile  matter  (CO2,  etc.) 
Silicon  dioxide  (Si02) i . • . • 
Aluminum  oxide  (AI2O3) . - 

Iron  oxide  (Fe20s) 

Calcium  oxide  (CaO) 

Magnesium  oxide  (MgO) . . 
Sulphur  trioxide  (SO.-s) .... 


3.02 

6.19 

71.46 

10.78 

5.49 

.86 

.81 

.53 


Total 


99.16 


CLAYS  OF  MISSISSIPPI. 


19 


The  amount  of  clay  substance  in  the  clay  is  27.27  per  cent.  The 
clay  contains  54.97  per  cent  of  sand. 

Recent  Alluvial  Clays. — The  flood-plain  areas  of  southern-  Missis- 
sippi contain  alluvial  clays  which  may  be  utilized  successfully  in  the 
manufacture  of  brick.  There  are  two  general  types  of  clays  repre- 
sented in  these  alluvial  deposits.  The  first  is  a sandy  clay  which  is 
generally  deposited  near  the  stream  channels.  The  second  is  a more 
plastic  type  containing  a higher  percentage  of  clay  and  found  in  inter- 
stream areas.  In  the  Yazoo  basin  the  stiff  clay  is  called  “buckshot” 
clay.  In  color  the  first  type  is  lighter  than  the  second.  In  weight 
the  reverse  is  true.  An  average  chemical  composition  of  two  samples 
of  these  clays  is  given  in  the  following  table: 

TABLE  No.  5. 


AVERAGE  COMPOSITION  OF  ALLUVIAL  CLAYS. 


Sandy  Clay. 

Buckshot  Clay 

Moisture  (H2O) 

2.68 

6.26 

Volatile  matter  (CO2,  etc.) 

7.31 

Silicon  dioxide  (Si02) 

72.53 

58.92 

Aluminum  oxide  (AI2O3) 

7.45 

13.82 

Iron  oxide  (Fe20s) 

6.04 

8.74 

Calcium  oxide  (CaO) 

1.01 

1.62 

Magnesium  oxide  (MgO) 

69 

.86 

Sulphur  trioxide  (SO3) 

39 

1.74 

Total 

94.77 

99.25 

The  amount  of  clay  substance  contained  in  the  sandy  clay  is  18.84 
per  cent.  In  the  second  type  it  is  34.95  per  cent.  The  amount  of 
sand  contained  in  the  first  type  is  61.14  per  cent;  and  in  the  second 
clay  it  is  only  37.79  per  cent.  On  account  of  the  fineness  of  grain  the 
“buckshot”  clay  presents  difficulties  in  drying.  The  two  clays  may 
be  more  successfully  utilized  in  making  brick  by  mixing  them. 


BRICK  CLAYS  AND  CLAY  INDUSTRY  OF  SOUTHERN 
MISSISSIPPI  BY  COUNTIES. 


ADAMS  COUNTY. 

GEOLOGY. 

The  bed-rock  of  Adams  County  consists  of  strata  of  Grand  Gulf  age. 
The  Grand  Gulf  is  composed  of  beds  of  clay,  sand,  sandstone  and 
gravel.  The  surface  of  the  bed-rock  is  concealed  very  largely  by 
deposits  of  Lafayette,  loess,  Columbia  and  silt  of  the  Mississippi. 

The  stratigraphy  of  the  surficial  formations  may  be  studied  best  in 
the  exposures  along  the  bluffs  of  the  Mississippi  River.  At  Natchez, 
one  mile  north  of  the  Yazoo  and  Mississippi  Valley  Railroad  station,  the 
following  section  is  exposed  in  the  river  bank: 


Section  at  Gravel  Point  North  of  Natchez. 

Feet. 

5.  Loess,  containing  gastropod  shells  and  lime  concretions,  capped 


in  most  places  by  a layer  of  brownish  clay,  grading  into  loam 

above,  flour-like  to  the  touch 40  to  50 

4.  Reddish,  sandy  clay,  coarse  and  gritty  to  the  touch,  apparently 

a residual  product  from  a clayey  sand 25  to  40 

3.  Sands  with  gravel,  tumultuously  cross-bedded 100  to  150 

2.  Coarse  gravel  and  pebbles,  yellow  cherts  predominate;  some 
crystallines;  many  pebbles  as  large  as  5 inches  in  one  diam- 
eter, some  cemented  by  limonite  into  pudding  stone ; layer  ex- 
posed for  10  to  15  rods  along  river  bank 8 to  10 

1.  Greenish-gray  clay,  very  plastic,  exposed  at  water’s  edge;  point 
of  contact  between  this  layer  and  the  one  above  is  about  high- 
water  mark  or  a little  below. . : . 6 00 


According  to  the  views  expressed  by  a majority  of  those  who  have 
made  a study  of  the  local  stratigraphy  at  Natchez  the  following 
assignment  would  be  the  proper  one  for  the  various  members  of  the 
above  section:  Stratum  No.  1,  belongs  undoubtedly  to  the  Grand 

Gulf,  as  that  formation  is  now  defined ; No.  2 would  be  assigned  to  the 
Lafayette  and  No.  3 to  the  Natchez;  No.  4 may  be  a residual  deposit 
formed  from  the  Natchez  before  the  deposition  of  the  loess  (No.  5.) 

Dr.  T.  C.  Chamberlin,  who  made  an  examination  of  the  geological 
conditions  at  Natchez,  gave  the  name  “Natchez”  to  a stratum  of  sands 
and  gravels  having  a thickness  of  200  feet.  In  speaking  of  the  age  of 
this  formation  Dr.  Chamberlin  says:  (see  Earth  History,  Volume  III, 


Mississippi  Geological  Survey 


Plate  I 


Bull.  No.  4 


A . LOESS  BLUFF,  NATCHEZ 


B.  GRAND  GULF?  GRAVEL  AND  CONGLOMERATE,  NATCHEZ. 


CLAYS  OF  MISSISSIPPI. 


21 


page  386,  under  the  head  of  “Natchez  Formation.”)  “At  Natchez, 
Mississippi,  there  is  a section  of  assorted  material  about  200  feet  in 
thickness,  which  is  chiefly  made  up  of  derivatives  from  the  Lafayette 
formation,  upon  which  it  rests  unconformably,  but  also  contains  crys- 
talline pebbles  and  calcareous  clays  assignable  to  wash  from  the  glacial 
regions,  all  other  assignments  seeming  to  be  excluded  by  a special  ex- 
amination. A marked  interval  between  its  deposition  and  that  of  the 
overlying  loess  is  indicated.  As  the  sub-Aftonian  and  Aftonian  de- 
posits are  the  only  older  ones  with  which  great  gravel  deposits  are 
known  to  be  associated,  and  as  the  Natchez  deposit  must  be  referred  to 
an  early  Pleistocene  stage  because  the  great  Mississippi  trench,  sixty 
miles  more  or  less,  in  breadth,  has  been  excavated  since  it  was  formed, 
reference  to  one  of  these  two  stages  is  more  plausible  than  to  a later 
one.  This  reference  is  strengthened  by  the  fact  that  almost  the  whole 
formation: — which  was  clearly  a valley  train  leading  back  to  the  drift 
area — has  been  removed.  . . . . .” 

In  the  blufl  on  the  south  side  of  the  boat-landing  at  Natchez,  much 
the  same  stratigraphical  conditions  as  those  recorded  above  are 
revealed. 

Section  South  of  Boat  Landing , Natchez. 


Feet. 

6.  Loess 40  to  50 

5.  Reddish,  sandy  clay 20  to  30 

4.  Green  clay  with  white  concretions,  stratified 5 to  10 

3.  White  to  yellow,  cross-bedded  sands  with  some  small 

gravel  in  lower  portion 70tol00 

2.  Coarse  gravel  and  sand 20  to  30 

1.  Hard  thin  sandstones  with  concretions 5 to  10 


According  to  the  above  interpretation  of  this  Section  No.  6 is  loess; 
No.  1 is  Grand  Gulf ; No.  2 is  Lafayette ; and  all  between  No.  2 and  No.  6 
is  Natchez. 

In  a bayou,  which  cuts  back  into  the  western  portion  of  Natchez 
from  the  river-front,  the  stratigraphy  of  the  upper  portion  of  the  above 
section  is  repeated  in  a large  number  of  exposures.  The  stratigraphy 
of  one  of  these  outcrops  is  given  below : 


Section  in  Bayou,  Natchez. 

4.  Loess  containing  gastropod  shells 

3.  Red  to  yellow,  coarse  sand  or  sandy  clay.  . . 

2.  Greenish-gray,  stratified  clay 

1 Fine  sand,  cross-bedded 


Feet. 
20  to  40 
10  to  25 
5 to  10 
50  to  60 


99 


CLAYS  OF  MISSISSIPPI. 


Following  the  view  expressed  above  Nos.  1 and  2 belong  to  the 
Natchez;  Nos.  3 and  4 belong  to  the  loess. 

A question  has  been  raised  in  the  mind  of  the  writer  as  to  whether 
the  sands  and  gravels  referred  to  in  the  above  sections  as  Lafayette  and 
Natchez  may  not  be  referred  properly  to  the  Grand  Gulf.  In  support 
of  such  an  assignment  the  following  facts  may  be  cited : 

1.  The  relation  of  these  beds  to  those  below  the  water-level  at  Natchez. 
The  grayish-green  clays  at  the  water  level,  just  below  the  coarse 
gravel  (Section  at  Gravel  Point)  have  been  assigned  to  the  Grand  Gulf 
by  all  who  have  made  a study  of  the  local  conditions.  According  to 
the  record  of  the  water-work’s  well,  the  mouth  of  which  is  located 
about  fifty  feet  above  the  level  of  the  water  in  the  river,  there  are  beds 
of  sand  and  gravel  below  this  bed  of  Grand  Gulf  clay.  The  strati- 
graphical  conditions  above  and  below  the  clay  bed  are,  therefore, 
similar  and  beds  of  sand  and  gravel  are  not  foreign  to  the  Grand  Gulf 
at  Natchez. 

2.  The  presence  of  stratified  clays  overlying  the  sands  and  gravels. 
Capping  the  Grand  Gulf  rocks  at  Stonington,  in  Jefferson  County,  is  a 
layer  of  clay  which  contains  white  lime  concretions.  A clay  contain- 
ing similar  concretions  is  found  overlying  many  exposures  of  these 
sands  at  Natchez.  These  clays  are  greenish  in  color  and  stratified. 
The  Natchez  is  not  present,  and  such  clays  are  not  found  at  other 
points  in  connection  with  the  Lafayette.  They  must  be  either  Grand 
Gulf  or  loess. 

3.  The  thickness  of  the  formation  excludes  a Lafayette  assignment. 
The  thickness  of  the  sand  and  gravel  beds  at  Natchez  is  between  200 
and  300  feet.  After  a careful  study  of  hundreds  of  outcrops  of  Lafay- 
ette in  the  State  of  Mississippi,  I am  of  the  opinion  that  beds  of  La- 
fayette exceeding  fifty  feet  in  thickness  are  extremely  rare.  A sim- 
ilar conclusion  has  been  reached  by  other  members  of  the  present 
survey,  each  following  independent  lines  of  investigation.  In  Water 
Supply  and  Irrigation  Paper  No.  159,  United  States  Geological  Survey, 
Crider  and  Johnson,  in  speaking  of  the  thickness  of  the  Lafayette,  say: 
“It  varies  from  a knife-edge  to  fifty  feet  or  more  in  thickness.  The 
latter  thickness  is  very  rare,  and  it  is  more  often  found  to  be  less  than 
ten  feet.”  Dr.  Calvin  S.  Brown,  in  Bulletin  No.  3,  Mississippi  State 
Geological  Survey,  The  Lignite  of  Mississippi,  says:  “The  name 
Lafayette,  then,  as  used  in  this  paper,  will  apply  only  to  that  layer  of 


Mississippi  Geological  Survey. 


Plate  II. 


Bull  No.  4. 


A.  PINNACLES  OF  SAND  PROTECTED  BY  PEBBLES,  NATCHEZ. 


B.  PLANT  OF  THE  NATCHEZ  BRICK  MANUFACTURING  COMPANY,  NATCHEZ 


CLAYS  OF  MISSISSIPPI. 


23 


sand,  or  sand  and  gravel,  usually  from  five  to  fifteen  feet  thick,  rarely 
exceeding  forty  or  fifty  feet  thick,  which  in  Quarternary  times  has  been 
deposited  unconformably  upon  the  older  formations  following  the  hills 
and  slopes  according  to  the  conformation  reached  about  the  close  of 
the  Tertiary  period.” 

These  facts  are  presented  as  an  argument  against  the  assignment 
of  the  whole  of  the  sands  and  gravels  of  these  beds  to  the  Lafayette. 
Of  course  these  facts  have  no  bearing  upon  the  assignment  of  the  beds 
to  the  Natchez  or  to  the  Lafayette  and  Natchez. 

4.  The  presence  of  sands  and  gravels  in  the  Grand  Gulf  at  other  points 
in  the  State.- — A log  obtained  from  a well  located  at  Columbia  shows 
one  hundred  and  sixty -eight  feet  of  sands  and  gravels..  This  bed  is, 
doubtless,  of  Grand  Gulf  origin,  since  the  greenish-gray  clays  of  the 
Grand  Gulf  are  found  within  a few  feet  of  the  surface  near  Columbia 
and  form  numerous  outcrops  at  higher  elevations  along  the  bluffs  of 
Pearl  River.  Sands  and  gravels  also  occur  in  Grand  Gulf  strata  at 
Hattiesburg,  Maxie,  Bond,  Howiston,  Lumberton  and  other  places. 

5.  The  stratigraphy  of  the  Mississippi  bluffs. — At  Yazoo  City  the 
Jackson  clays  and  marls  form  the  main  body  of  the  bluffs.  These  hills 
rise  to  a height  of  300  to  400  feet  above  the  flood-plain  of  the  river. 
The  Lafayette  does  not  exceed  twenty-five  feet  in  thickness  and  con- 
tains a few  gravels.  The  Natchez  is  not  present.  The  loess  lies  upon 
the  Lafayette  and  caps  the  tops  of  the  hills. 

At  Vicksburg  the  main  body  of  the  bluffs  is  composed  of  the  Vicks- 
burg formation.  The  Lafayette,  which  overlies  the  Vicksburg,  does 
not  exceed  twenty  or  twenty-five  feet  in  thickness..  It  contains  a few 
water-worn  pebbles  and  resembles,  in  a general  way,  stratum  No.  4,  in 
the  Gravel  Point  section  at  Natchez.  The  Lafayette  at  Vicksburg  is 
overlain  by  a thick  bed  of  loess. 

At  Grand  Gulf  all  the , rocks  of  the  bluffs,  except  the  loess,  are 
referred  to  the  Grand  Gulf  formation  by  Hilgard.  The  rocks  of  the 
Grand  Gulf  at  this  point  consist  of  sands,  sandstones  and  clays. 

At  Ft.  Adams,  below  Natchez,  the  main  body  of  the  bluffs  is  com- 
posed of  sands  and  sandstones,  which  are  considered  to  be  of  Grand 
Gulf  age.  The  Grand  Gulf  formation  is  concealed  by  beds  of  Lafayette 
and  loess. 

The  main  body  of  the  bluffs,  both  above  and  below  Natchez,  in  so 
far  as  the  observations  of  the  writer  are  concerned,  is  composed  of 


24 


CLAYS  OF  MISSISSIPPI. 


strata  older  than  the  Lafayette.  This  being  true,  if  we  assume  that 
the  main  body  of  the  bluffs  at  Natchez  is  composed  of  strata  younger 
than  the  Grand  Gulf,  we  must  assume  exceptional  conditions  at  that 
point.  We  must  assume  that  a deep  trench  was  cut  in  the  Grand  Gulf 
at  right  angles  to  the  present  trend  of  the  river ; that  this  trench  was 
cut  to  the  present  water-level  of  the  river ; and  that  in  this  trench  were, 
deposited  Lafayette  sands  and  gravels,  followed  by  the  sands  and 
gravels  of  the  Natchez.  Do  such  exceptional  conditions  exist  or  does 
the  main  body  of  the  bluffs  at  Natchez,  like  the  bluffs  above  and  below, 
belong  to  the  Grand  Gulf? 

CLAYS  AND  CLAY  INDUSTRY.* 

The  loess  and  the  Columbia,  brown  loam  phase,  which  is,  probably, 
largely  a residual  product  of  the  loess,  are  being  used  in  Adams 
County  in  the  manufacture  of  brick.  Other  clay-bearing  formations 
are  the  Lafayette,  the  Grand  Gulf  and  the  recent  alluvium  of  the 
Mississippi  flood-plain. 

Natchez. — The  Concord  Brick  Company  of  Natchez  was  organized 
in  1902.  Three  kinds  of  clay  are  used,  a top  loam,  a middle,  plastic 
clay  and  the  non-plastic  loess  lying  beneath.  These  are  mixed 
together  in  the  manufacture  of  brick  by  the  soft-mud  process.  The 
bricks  are  molded  in  a steam-power  machine.  They  are  dried  on 
pallets  in  open-air  racks  and  are  burned  in  up-draft  kilns  of  the  clamp 
type. 

The  plastic  clay  has  a specific  gravity  of  1.97 ; has  an  air-shrinkage 
of  6 per  cent,  and  requires  24  per  cent  of  wTater  to  render  it  plastic. 
The  clay  slakes  readily  and  speedily.  The  medium -burned  briquets 
absorb  from  8 to  12  per  cent  of  water.  The  briquets  lose  about  5 
per  cent  in  weight  in  passing  from  an  air-dried  to  a burned  condition. 

The  Natchez  Brick  Manufacturing  Company  was  established  in 
1897.  The  clay-pit  exhibits  about  five  feet  of  clay  overlying  the  loess, 
but  separated  from  it  by  about  three  feet  of  transitional  material.  One 
foot  of  the  loess  is  mixed  with  the  eight  feet  of  overlying  loam  and  clay 
in  the  manufacture  of  brick  by  the  soft-mud  process.  The  bricks  are 
molded  in  a steam-power  machine.  The  clay  is  first  prepared  in  a dis- 

*A11  briquets,  the  tests  of  which  are  recorded  in  the  following  pages,  have  been  molded 
according  to  the  method  described  on  page  79  of  Bulletin  No.  2 of  the  Mississippi  State  Geological 
Survey.  The  burned  briquets,  the  absorption  tests  of  which  are  given,  were  all  burned  tc  a 
medium  degree  of  hardness  except  as  otherwise  stated. 


Mississippi  Geological  Survey. 


Plate  III 


Bull-  No.  4. 


A.  PLANT  OF  THE  CONCORD  BRICK  MANUFACTURING  COMPANY,  NATCHEZ. 


B.  CLAY-PIT  OF  THE  CONCORD  BRICK  MANUFACTURING  COMPANY,  NATCHEZ 


CLAYS  OF  MISSISSIPPI. 


25 


integrator  and  pug  mill.  The  bricks  are  placed  on  pallets  and  dried  in 
sheds.  They  are  then  burned  in  clamp-kilns.  The  clay-pit  is  not  far 
from  the  Concord  Brick  Company’s  pit,  and  the  physical  and  chemical 
properties  of  the  clays  are  very  similar. 

An  analysis  of  a sample  of  gray  loess  is  given  below : 

TABLE  No.  6. 

ANALYSIS  OF  LOESS.  FROM  NATCHEZ. 


Insoluble  matter 

Peroxide  of  iron 

Alumina 

Potash 

Soda 

Lime 

Magnesia 

Brown  oxide  of  manganese. 

Phosphoric  acid 

Sulphuric  acid 

Carbonic  acid 

Organic  matter  and  water. . 


67.377 

5.920 

.139 

.104 

11.934 

2.084 

.171 

.138 

.002 

8.976 

3.087 


Total 


99.932 


The  alluvial  clay-deposits  of  Adams  County  have  not  been  used  as 
yet  in  the  manufacture  of  brick.  The  flood-plain  areas  of  the  streams 
afford  two  types  of  clays,  a sandy  type,  which  occurs  near  the  present 
streams,  and  a more  plastic,  inter-stream  type.  By  a proper  mixture 
of  these  two  clays,  brick  and  drain  tile  of  good  quality  may  be  manu- 
factured. 


AMITE  COUNTY. 

GEOLOGY. 

Amite  County  lies  within  the  area  underlain  by  the  Grand  Gulf 
formation.  The  bed-rock  is  largely  concealed  by  the  more  surficial 
deposits  of  Lafayette  and  brown  loam  or  Columbia.  The  gray  clays 
of  the  Grand  Gulf  out-crop  in  deep  cuts,  and  in  other  places  where  the 
sands  and  gravels  of  the  Lafayette  and  the  silty  loams  of  the  Columbia 
have  been  removed  by  erosion. 

CLAYS  AND  CLAY  INDUSTRY. 

The  clays  of  Amite  County,  suitable  for  the  manufacture  of  brick, 
belong  to  the  surface  formations.  Bricks  have  been  manufactured  at 
Liberty,  Gloster  and  Peoria. 

Liberty. — The  Liberty  Brick  Manufacturing  Company  uses  yellow, 
surface  clay  in  the  manufacture  of  brick  by  the  soft-mud  process. 


26 


CLAYS  OF  MISSISSIPPI. 


The  clay  is  tempered  in  a ring-pit.  The  bricks  are  molded  by  hand  and 
dried  in  racks.  In  the  clav-pit  about  five  feet  of  yellow  clay  rests  upon 
a bed  of  sand  and  gravel  of  Lafayette  age.  The  clay  from  the  yellow 
layer  is  sandy  in  the  upper  portion,  but  increases  in  clay-content 
toward  the  bottom. 

Gloster. — In  1907  a few  kilns  of  bricks  were  manufactured  at  Gloster. 
The  clay  used  was  yellow  surface  clay.  It  was  tempered  in  a circular 
pug-mill  and  molded  by  hand.  The  bricks  were  burned  in  up-draft 
scove  kilns. 

Peoria. — A few  kilns  of  bricks  have  been  manufactured  at  or  near 
Peoria.  The  clay  used  is  a surface  clay  of  Columbia  age.  The 
bricks  were  manufactured  by  the  hand  process. 


CLAIBORNE  COUNTY. 

GEOLOGY. 

Claiborne  County  contains  the  type  locality  of  the  Grand  Gulf 
formation.  The  typical  outcrop  of  the  formation  is  at  Grand  Gulf,  on 
the  Mississippi  River.  As  described  by  Dr.  E.  W.  Hilgard  (Geology 
and  Agriculture  of  Mississippi,  p.  148),  the  stratigraphy  of  the  out- 
crop is  as  follows: 


Section  of  the  Bluff  at  jGrand  Gulf,  Claiborne  County.  Feet. 

12.  Calcerous  silt  of  the  Bluff  formation,  forming  the  hilltops 60  to  70 

11.  Grand  Gulf  sandstone  in  ledges  10  inches  to  2 feet  in  thickness; 

stratification  often  discordant  and  curved 14 

10.  Gray  sandy  material,  sometimes  soft  sandstone,  with  an  argilla- 
ceous cement  alternating  with  harder  ledges  6 to  10  inches  thick 

of  friable,  whitish  sandstone 15 

9.  Solid,  whitish  sandstone,  of  good  quality 2>£ 

8.  Greenish-gray  clay  with  white  veins  of  carbonate  of  lime 2y£ 

7.  Soft  white  sandstone 1 

6.  Grayish-yellow  pipe  clay '/t 

5.  Dark-gray,  brittle  sandstone 1 

4.  Gray  semi-indurate,  clayey  sand 3 

3.  Gray  and  yellowish  sands  and  clays,  semi -indurate,  interstratified  17 

2.  Semi-indurate,  gray  sand 3 

1.  Greenish-gray  clay,  with  veins  of  carbonate  of  lime 2 


The  Grand  Gulf  is  concealed  in  all  places  by  deposits  of  Lafayette, 
loess  and  Columbia,  except  where  erosion  has  removed  the  latter 
formations. 


CLAYS  OF  MISSISSIPPI. 


27 


About  one-half  mile  north  of  Martin,  on  the  Yazoo  and  Mississippi 
Valley  Railroad,  the  following  section  is  exposed  in  a cut: 

Section  Near  Martin.  Feet. 


4.  Brown  loam 3 

3.  Gravel  and  sandy  loam 2 

2.  Red,  sandy  clay 8 

1.  White  quartz  rock 10 


No.  1 is  an  almost  pure,  crystalline  quartz-rock,  belonging  to  the 
Grand  Gulf  formation.  Nos.  2 and  3 are  of  Lafayette  age,  and  No.  4 
belongs  to  the  Columbia. 

In  the  southeastern  part  of  this  county,  near  Brandywine,  are 
numerous  outcrops  of  Grand  Gulf  clays,  claystones  and  standstones. 
Some  of  the  claystones  weather,  first,  into  parallelopipeds,  then,  by 
concoidal  fracture,  into  lens-like  bodies.  In  many  places  the  surface 
deposits  of  Lafayette  and  Columbia  loam  are  eroded  into  a “bad-land” 
type  of  topography.  Some  of  the  Grand  Gulf  claystones  contain 
impressions  of  leaves.  The  chemical  analyses  of  some  of  the  clays, 
sandstones  and  claystones  are  found  in  the  following  table: 


TABLE  No.  7. 

ANALYSES  OF  GRAND  GULF  CLAYS  AND  SANDSTONES. 


No.  3. 

No.  4. 

No.  7. 

No.  8. 

Moisture  (H2O) 

. . 3.59 

1.09 

00.74 

2.36 

Volatile  matter  (CO2,  etc.) 

..  2.93 

2.98 

1.51 

4.01 

Silicon  dioxide  (Si02) 

. . . 77.44 

82.42 

92 . 13 

74.92 

Aluminum  oxide  (AI2O3) 

. . 11.09 

9.65 

2.96 

13.25 

Iron  oxide  (Fe203) 

...  4.17 

2.40 

1.61 

2.96 

Calcium  oxide  (CaO) 

, ...  0.53 

0.70 

.54 

.20 

Magnesium  oxide  (MgO) 

.31 

.46 

.42 

. .38 

Sulphur  trioxide  (SO3) 

.05 

.12 

2.12 

00.00 

Total 

. .100.11 

99.62 

99.96 

100.20 

1.  3 is  a sandstone  from 

near  Brandywine 

; No. 

4 is  a 

silicious  clay  from  the  same  locality;  No.  7 is  a sandstone  from  near 
Clark,  and  No.  8 is  a silicious  clay  from  the  same  place. 

CLAYS  AND  CLAY  INDUSTRY. 

The  clay  industry  of  Claiborne  County  has  been  developed  only  to 
a very  limited  extent.  The  clay-bearing  formations  are  the  Grand 
Gulf,  the  Lafayette  and  the  Columbia. 

Port  Gibson. — The  Port  Gibson  Brick  and  Tile  Company  was  estab- 
lished in  1889.  The  old  plant  was  burned  and  new  machinery  was 
installed  in  1907.  In  the  old  plant  the  bricks  were  molded  by  the 


28 


CLAYS  OF  MISSISSIPPI. 


stiff -mud  process.  They  were  dried  in  racks  and  burned  in  up-draft, 
clamp-kilns. 

The  clay  slakes  readily,  is  easily  crushed  and  tempered.  It  is  free 
from  concretions  and  hard  lumps  which  interfere  with  molding  and 
cutting.  The  water  required  for  plasticity  is  about  22.  per  cent.  In 
air-drying  the  briquets  shrink  about  6 per  cent.  The  burned  briquets 
are  red,  and  have  an  absorbtion  of  8 to  10  per  cent  for  medium 
hardness. 

The  thickness  of  the  clay  in  the  pit  is  eight  feet  with  two  feet  or 
more  of  non-plastic,  loess-like  material  underlying  it.  The  clay  is 
fairly  uniform  in  quality  throughout  its  entire  thickness. 

The  flood-plain  areas  of  Claiborne  County  contain  clays  which, 
with  proper  care  in  molding,  drying  and  burning,  will  make  good  brick. 
The  more  plastic  of  these  clays  contain  from  35  to  40  per  cent  of  clay 
substance. 


CLARKE  COUNTY. 

GEOLOGY. 

The  bed-rock  formations  of  Clarke  County  include  the  Claiborne 
group,  the  Jackson  formation  and  the  Vicksburg  formation.  The 
northern  part  of  the  county  is  underlain  by  thq  Tallahatta  buhrstone 
division  of  the  Claiborne.  The  southern  limit  of  this  formation  ex- 
tends in  a line  through  Enterprise  to  a point  near  where  the  32° 
parallel  crosses  the  State  line.  The  Calcareous  Claiborne,  which  bor- 
ders the  Tallahatta  buhrstone  on  the  south,  forms  the  bed-rock  of  the 
central  part  of  the  county.  The  Jackson  formation  underlies  the  re- 
mainder of  the  county,  with  the  exception  of  the  southwestern  corner, 
which  is  underlain  by  the  Vicksburg  formation.  The  surficial  deposits 
of  the  county  belong  to  the  Lafayette  and  the  Columbia.  The 
Lafayette  is  represented  by  sands,  clays  and  ironstones  which  attain 
their  maximum  thickness  on  the  divides  between  the  streams.  The 
Columbia  is  usually  very  thin,  thicknesses  of  over  ten  to  fifteen  feet  are 
rare. 

The  Calcareous  Claiborne  consists  of  marls  and  clays.  Below  is 
given  the  composition  of  two  samples  of  the  Claiborne  marl.  The  first 
sample  is  from  Parker’s  Ferry,  on  Chickasawhay  River,  and  the  second 
sample  is  from  Falling  Creek. 


CLAYS  OF  MISSISSIPPI. 


29 


TABLE  No.  8. 


ANALYSES  OF  CLAIBORNE  MARLS.  CLARKE  COUNTY. 


Insoluble  matter 

Alumina 

Lime 

Potash 

Soda 

Magnesia 

Brown  oxide  of  manganese. 

Peroxide  of  iron 

Phosphoric  acid 

Sulphuric  acid 

Carbonic  acid 

Organic  matter  and  water. . 

Total 


No.  1. 

No.  2. 

66.347 

65.540 

4.167 

2.125 

9.782 

15.330 

1.208 

.375 

.339 

.246 

1.442 

.599 

.097 

.076 

6.405 

2.209 

.145 

.086 

.397 

.159 

6.254 

10.650 

3.356 

2.579 

99.939 

99.974 

The  Jackson  formation  consists  of  clays,  sands  and  marls.  In 
many  localities  the  clay  contains  crystals  of  selenite  and  the  bones  of 
the  Zueglodon,  an  extinct  whale-like  animal.  A sample  of  the 
gypsum-bearing  clay  from  the  Smith-farm  at  Barnett  has  the  following 
composition : 

TABLE  No.  9. 

ANALYSIS  OF  BARNETT  CLAY. 

No.  83  (Old  Series.) 


Moisture  (H2O) ; 5.55 

Volatile  matter  (CO2) 13.80 

Silicon  dioxide  (Si02) 38.75 

Aluminum  oxide  (AI2O3) 22.83 

Iron  oxide  (Fe20s) 3.14 

Calcium  oxide  (CaO) 14.25 

Magnesium  oxide  (MgO) 1.01 

Sulphur  trioxide  (SO 3) Trace. 


Total 99.33 

The  composition  of  three  samples  of  marl  from  the  Jackson  forma- 
tion of  Clarke  County  is  given  below.  No.  1 is  from  Smith’s  Spring; 
No.  2 is  from  Garland’s  Creek;  and  No.  3 is  from  Shubuta  Ferry: 


TABLE  No.  10. 


COMPOSITION  OF  JACKSON  MARLS. 


No.  1. 

No.  2. 

No.  3. 

Insoluble  matter 

72.783 

45.881 

52.289 

Alumina 

2.7.13 

7.751 

7.615 

Lime 

10.560 

14.785 

19.160 

Potash 

639 

1.117 

.236 

Soda 

* 096 

.165 

.100 

Magnesia 

424 

2.476 

.355 

Brown 'oxide  of  manganese 

Peroxide  of  iron 

094 

2.058 

.403 

13.020 

. .368 

Phosphoric  acid 

468 

.327 

.353 

Sulphuric  acid 

Carbonic  acid 

297 

.566 

.583 

7.967 

12.492 

15.428 

Organic  matter  and  water 

2.173 

00.00 

3.611 

Total 

100.272 

99.883 

100.090 

TJie  Vicksburg  limestone  occurs  in  ledges  of  considerable  thick- 
nesses, and,  although  massive  in  structure,  it  may*  be  cut  into  blocks 


30 


CLAYS  OF  MISSISSIPPI. 


with  ease.  It  is  quarried  and  used  in  portions  of  Clarke  County  for 
chimneys  and  for  foundations  of  houses.  A sample  of  the  Vicksburg 
limestone  from  the  western  part  of  Clarke  County  has  the  following 
composition : 

TABLE  No.  IU 

ANALYSIS  OF  VICKSBURG  LIMESTONE,  CLARKE  COUNTY. 


Moisture  (H2O) 1.00 

Volatile  matter  (CO2) 35.20 

Silicon  dioxide  (SKD2) 7.31 

Iron  oxide  (Fe2C>3) 4.00 

Aluminum  oxide  (AI2O3) 13.66 

Calcium  oxide  (CaO) 35.20 

Magnesium  oxide  (MgO) 29 

Sulphur  trioxide  (SO3) 2 78 


Total 100.86 


CLAYS  AND  CLAY  INDUSTRY. 

The  clays  of  the  surface  formations  are  the  only  ones  in  Clarke 
County  which  have  as  yet  been  employed  in  the  manufacture  of  brick. 
The  Lafayette  clays  are  predominantly  red,  though  thin  beds  of  white 
clay  are  occasionally  encountered.  The  red  clays  are  generally  stiff, 
with  a jointed  structure.  The  proportion  of  clay  substance  to  the 
sandy  matter  is  somewhat  variable,  but,  as  a rule,  the  quantity  of  the 
latter  is  not  adequate  for  making  soft-mud  brick.  Two  varieties  of 
Columbia  loam  are  represented:  A white  to  gray  loam,  which  usually 

contains  iron  concretions,  especially  in  the  lower  portion,  and  a brown 
loam.  The  former  may  represent  the  un drained  areas  of  the  Columbia. 

Quitman. — At  Quitman  Mr.  C.  S.  Edmonson  uses  a mixture  of  red 
Lafayette  clay  and  Columbia  loam  in  the  manufacture  of  brick  by  the 
soft-mud  process.  The  clay-pit  exhibits  the  following  stratigraphic 


details: 

Section  of  Quitman  Clay-Pit.  Feet. 

4.  Soil ' 1 

3.  Brown  loam,  white  in  places 2 to  3 

2.  Lafayette,  red  clay 7 

1,  Sand,  Lafayette ! . . . . 1 


The  thickness  of  the  sand  in  No.  1 is  not  revealed  in  the  clay-pit, 
but  the  record  of  the  artesian  well  located  at  the  brick-yard  gives  the 
thickness  of  the  Lafayette  sand  at  this  point. 

Record  of  Artesian  Well,  Quitman. 

Thickness  Depth 

Feet.  Feet. 


1.  Soil,  Columbia  loam  and  Lafayette  clay 10  .10 

2.  Sand,  Lafayette 20  30 

3.  Marl,  Calcareous  Claiborne 140  170 


CLAYS  OF  MISSISSIPPI. 


31 


The  bricks  manufactured  at  the  Edmonson  plant  are  molded  in  a 
soft-mud  machine,  which  has  a daily  capacity  of  15,000  bricks,  and  is 
operated  by  horse-power.  The  bricks  are  placed  on  pallets  in  covered 
racks  and  dried.  They  are  burned  in  up-draught  clamp-kilns,  the 
water-smoking  and  burning  requiring  ten  to  twelve  days  for  com- 
pletion. 

The  chemical  composition  of  the  Columbia  clays  used  at  the 
Edmonson  plant  is  found  in  the  following  table.  No.  129  is  the 
brown  clay;  No.  130  is  the  gray  clay: 


TABLE  No.  12. 

ANALYSES  OF  QUITMAN  CLAYS. 

No.  129. 


Moisture  (H2O) 1.64 

Volatile  matter  (CO2,  etc.) 3.75 

Silicon  dioxide  (S1O2) 81.54 

Aluminum  oxide  (AI2O3) 2.47 

Iron  oxide  (FeaOs) 4.15 

Calcium  oxide  (CaO) 3.22 

Magnesium  oxide  (MgO) 0.20 

Sulphur  trioxide  (SO3) 0.13 


Total 97.10 


No.  130. 
1.50 
3.42 
78.77 
9.27 
3.00 
1.25 
0.11 
0.25 


97.5/ 


RATIONAL  ANALYSES. 


Clay  substance 6.25  23.45 

Free  silica 77.76  64.57 

Fluxing  impurities 7.70  4.61 


The  brown  and  the  gray  clay  are  mixed  in  the  manufacture  of  brick 
and  have  about  the  same  slaking  speed.  The  amount  of  water  re- 
quired to  render  the  mixture  plastic  adds  20  per  cent  to  the  weight  of 
the  clay.  The  amount  pf  shrinkage  which  the  clay  undergoes  in  air- 
drying is  8 per  cent.  The  average  tensile  strength  per  square  inch  of 
the  brown  clay  briquets  is  60  pounds. 


COPIAH  COUNTY. 

GEOLOGY. 

Copiah  County  lies  within  the  area  underlain  by  the  Grand  Gulf. 
The  rocks  of  this  group  consist  of  clays,  gravels,  sands  and  sandstones. 
The  mantle  of  Lafayette  and  Columbia,  common  to  the  Grand  Gulf 
area,  is  present  in  this  county  also.  The  shallow  wells  which  pierce 
this  mantle,  and  usually  obtain  their  water  from  its  base,  vary  in 
depth  from  twenty  to  sixty  feet.  The  stratigraphy  of  the  mantle- 
rock  is  revealed  in  a railroad  cut  south  of  the  brick-plant  at  Hazlehurst. 


32 


CLAYS  OF  MISSISSIPPI. 


Lafayette-Columbia  Section  at  Hazlehurst.  Feet. 

4.  Soil 1 

3.  Brown-colored  loam 4 to  5 

2.  Brown  sand,  containing  gravel 2 to  3 

1.  Pink  sand,  containing  gravel 10  to  15 


Nos.  1 and  2 are  Lafayette  and  No.  3 is  Columbia. 

CLAYS  AND  CLAY  INDUSTRY. 

Crystal  Springs. — At  Crystal  Springs  the  Taylor-Thomas  Brick 
Manufacturing  Company  uses  the  surface-loam  clay  (Columbia)  in 
the  manufacture  of  brick.  The  record  of  the  well  at  the.  brick-plant 
shows  the  following  local  stratigraphy : 

Record  of  Well  at  Taylor-Thomas  Brick  Plant,  Crystal  Springs. 

Thickness.  Depth. 
Feet.  Feet. 


1.  Clay 12  12 

2.  Red  sand  and  sandstone 30  42 

3.  Red  and  white  sand  and  gravel 30  72 

4.  Clay 3 75 

5.  Water-bearing  sand  and  gravel 5 80 


The  clay  from  No.  1 is  used  in  the  manufacture  of  brick  by  the 
Taylor-Thomas  Company.  The  clay  is  pulverized  in  a disintegrator 
and  tempered  in  a pug-mill.  It  is  then  molded  in  a stiff -mud  machine 
of  the  end-cut,  auger-type.  The  bricks  are  burned  in  up-draft  kilns, 
after  being  dried  in  sheds. 

Hazlehurst. — The  Hazlehurst  Brick  Company  uses  the  brownish- 
yellow  clay  of  the  Columbia  in  the  manufacture  of  brick.  The  clay- 
pit  contains  about  six  feet  of  clay,  which  rests  upon  the  orange-colored 
sands  of  the  Lafayette  formation.  These  sands  have  a thickness  of 
forty  to  fifty  feet  in  the  gulches  and  wells  about  Hazlehurst. 

The  clay  used  by  this  company  is  transported  from  the  pit  to  the 
machine  by  the  use  of  cable-cars,  drum  and  hoist.  The  clay  is  then 
tempered  in  a pug-mill  and  molded  in  a stiff-mud,  end-cut  machine. 
The  bricks  are  stacked  in  sheds  to  dry  and  are  burned  in  clamp-kilns. 

COVINGTON  COUNTY. 

GEOLOGY. 

The  strata  underlying  the  surface  deposits  of  Covington  County  are 
of  Grand  Gulf  age.  The  rocks  of  the  Grand  Gulf  consist  of  clays,-  sand- 
stones and  gravels.  * The  bed-rock  is  largely  concealed  by  the  orange- 
colored  sands  of  the  Lafayette  and  the  yellowish  loam  of  the  Columbia.. 


Mississippi  Geological  Survey. 


Plate  IV. 


Bull  No.  4. 


A.  KILNS  OF  THE  MT.  OLIVE  BRICK  MANUFACTURING  COMPANY,  MT.  OLIVE. 


B.  CLAY-PIT  OF  THE  MT.  OLIVE  BRICK  MANUFACTURING  COMPANY,  MT.  OLIVE. 


A 


CLAYS  OF  MISSISSIPPI. 


33 


CLAYS  AND  CLAY  INDUSTRY. 

The  Lafayette  and  the  Columbia  formations  contain  suitable  ma- 
terial for  the  manufacture  of  brick.  The  sandy  clays  of  the  Lafayette 
are  suitable  for  the  manufacture  of  soft-mud  brick ; the  more  plastic, 
Columbia  clays,  and  the  residual  clay  of  the  Grand  Gulf  may  be  used  in 
other  processes. 

Mount  Olive. — At  Mount  Olive  a yellow  clay  and  loam  (Columbia) 
are  used  in  the  manufacture  of  brick  by  the  Mount  Olive  Brick  Manu- 
facturing Company.  The  following  section  exhibits  the  different 
layers  which  occur  in  the  clav-pit: 


Section  of  Clay  Pit , Mt.  Olive.  Feet. 

4.  Soil,  sandy 1 

3.  Yellow  clay  (Columbia) 6 to  10 

2.  Red  sandstone  (Lafayette) 1 to  2 

1.  White,  sandy  clay  (Grand  Gulf) 3 


The  surface  of  No.  2 is  very  irregular  there  being  a decided  uncon- 
formity between  this  layer  and  the  upper  one.  The  clay  from  No.  3 
is  used  in  the  manufacture  of  brick.  The  clay  is  transported  from  the 
pit  to  the  plant  by  means  of  cars  attached  by  cable  to  a drum  and  hoist. 
It  is  crushed  in  a disintegrator  and  tempered  in  a horizontal  pug-mill, 
and  is  then  molded  in  a stiff -mud  machine  of  the  auger-type.  The 
bar  of  clay  is  separated  into  bricks  by  an  end-cut  table.  Open  sheds 
and  a steam-dryer  are  used  to  dry  the  bricks.  The  bricks  are  burned  in 
rectangular,  up-draft  kilns  of  the  clamp-tvpe. 

The  analysis  of  a sample  of  the  unburned  clay  from  Mount  Olive  is 
given  in  the  following  table: 

TABLE  No.  13. 

ANALYSIS  OF  MT.  OLIVE  CLAY. 

No.  127. 


Moisture  (H2O) 3.17 

Volatile  matter  (CO2,  etc.) 5.81 

Silicon  dioxide  (Si02) 71.25 

Aluminum  oxide  (AI2O3) 11.17 

Iron  oxide  (Fe203) 5.90 

Calcium  oxide  (CaO) 0.47 

Magnesium  oxide  (MgO) 0.38 

Sulphur  trioxide  (SO3) 1.98 

Total 100.13 

RATIONAL  ANALYSIS. 

Clay  substance 28.26 

Free  silica 54.16 

Fluxing  impurities 8.73 


34 


CLAYS  OF  MISSISSIPPI. 


FORREST  COUNTY* 

GEOLOGY. 

The  bed-rock  formation  of  Forrest  County  is  the  Grand  Gulf.  The 
rocks  of  the  formation  are  clays,  sands  and  gravels.  An  idea  of  the 
character  of  the  formation  may  be  gathered  from  the  record  of  an 
artesian  well  at  Hattiesburg. 

Log  of  an  Artesian  Well , Hattiesburg. 

Thickness.  Depth. 

Feet.  Feet. 


Pinkish  clay 100  100 

Water-bearing  sand 30  130 

Greenish  clay 150  280 

Water-bearing  sand  and  gravel 20  300 


In  a deeper  well  the  greenish  clay  occurred  at  a depth  of  600  feet. 
Exposures  of  Grand  Gulf  are  to  be  seen  along  the  courses  of  Leaf  River 
and  its  tributaries.  The  surficial  formations  of  the  county  are  of 
Lafayette  and  Columbia  age. 

CLAYS  AND  CLAY  INDUSTRY. 

The  Columbia  clays  are  used  in  Forrest  County  in  the  manufacture 
of  brick.  These  clays  are  not  generally  of  very  great  thickness.  In 
undrained  or  poorly  drained  areas  they  contain  considerable  “buck- 
shot” or  iron  concretions'.  In  some  places  they  rest  directly  upon  the 
residual  clays  of  the  Grand  Gulf,  and  in  other  places  upon  the  sands 
and  gravels  of  the  Lafayette.  The  color  of  the  clay  is  either  gray  or 
yellow  and  usually  sandy  in  composition. 

Hattiesburg. — At  Hattiesburg  bricks  are  manufactured  by  Mr.  T.  P. 
Crymes,  who  established  his  plant  in  1902.  The  bricks  are  molded  in  a 
soft-mud,  steam-power  machine;  dried  in  a steam  dryer,  and  burned 
in  up-draft,  clamp-kilns.  In  the  clay-pit  a bed  of  yellow  and  gray 
clay,  about  three  feet  thick  rests  upon  a plastic  clay,  which  may  be 
either  Lafayette  or  Grand  Gulf.  The  latter  is  too  plastic  to  be  used 
alone  in  the  soft-mud  process. 

The  Riverside  Brick  Company  of  Hattiesburg  was  established  in 
1901.  The  clay  is  prepared  by  crushing  in  a disintegrator  and  tem- 
pering in  a pug-mill.  The  bricks  are  then  molded  in  a soft-mud  machine 
operated  by  steam-power.  After  being  dried  in  sheds  they  are  burned 
in  clamp-kilns. 


CLAYS  OF  MISSISSIPPI. 


35 


Plate  V. 


PLANT  OF  THE  CRYMES  BRICK  MANUFACTURING  COMPANY,  HATTIESBURG. 


A gray  clay  mixed  with  a yellow  loam  and  a sand  are  used  in 
making  brick.  The  composition  of  a sample  of  the  yellow  loam  is 
given  below: 

TABLE  No.  14. 


ANALYSIS  OF  HATTIESBURG  YELLOW  LOAM. 

Moisture  (H2O) 

Volatile  matter  (CO2,  etc.) 

Silicon  dioxide  (Si02) ' 

Aluminum  oxide  (AI2O3) 

Iron  oxide  (Fe203) 

Calcium  oxide  (CaO) 

Magnesium  oxide  (MgO) 

Sulphur  trioxide  (SO3) 


No.  123. 

1.27- 
. . 2.82 
. . 85 . 49 
. . 1.65 

. . 2.52 

. . 0.67 

..  0.18 
..  0.10 


Total 


94.70 


RATIONAL  ANALYSIS. 


Clay  substance 4.17 

Free  silica 82.97 

Fluxing  impurities 3.47 


The  following  is  an  analysis  of  the  gray  clay: 

TABLE  No.  15. 


ANALYSIS  OF  HATTIESBURG  GRAY  CLAY.  No.  128. 

Moisture  (H2O) 1.34 

Volatile  matter  (CO2,  etc.) 2.84 

Silicon  dioxide  (SiOt) . . . 87.45 

Aluminum  oxide  (AI2O3) 1.87 

Iron  oxide  (FejOs) . 2.57 

Calcium  oxide  (CaO) 2.50 

Magnesium  oxide  (MgO). 0.13 

Sulphur  trioxide  (SOs) ‘ 0.37 

Total 99.07 


RATIONAL  ANALYSIS. 


Clay  substance 4.73 

Free  silica 81.59 

Fluxing  impurities 5.57 


36 


CLAYS  OF  MISSISSIPPI. 


It  will  be  seen  from  the  above  analyses  that  these  two  materials 
have  a low  per  cent  of  clay  substance.  When  properly  burned  the 
bricks  present  the  qualities  of  a good  vitrified  brick.  For  the  manu- 
facture o£  a Stiff -mud  brick  different  proportions  of  these  clays  would 
be  necessary  . 

Maxie. — At  Maxie  a reddish  clay  belonging  to  the  Lafayette 
overlies  the  siliceous  Grand  Gulf  clays.  This  red  clay  contains  a large 
amount  of  coarse  sand.  The  thickness  of  the  outcrop  is  about  ten 
feet.  A sample  of  the  clay  has  the  following  composition: 


TABLE  No.  16. 

ANALYSIS  OF  MAXIE  CLAY. 

No.  135. 


Moisture  (H2O) 2.23 

Volatile  matter  (CO2,  etc.) 3.90 

Silicon  dioxide  (Si02) 79.85 

Aluminum  oxide  (AI2O3) 2.60 

Iron  oxide  (Fe20s) 3.75 

Calcium  oxide  (CaO) 1.00 

Magnesium  oxide  (MgO) 0.15 

Sulphur  trioxide  (SO3) 0.19 


Total 93.67 

RATIONAL  ANALYSIS. 

Clay  substance 6.58 

Free  silica 75.88 

Fluxing  impurities 5.09 


This  clay  is  not  sufficiently  plastic  to  be  used  alone  in  the  manufac- 
ture of  stiff -mud  brick.  However,  it  could  be  employed  with  success 
in  the  manufacture  of  soft-mud  brick.  In  some  places  a residual  clay, 
which  occurs  at  the  base  of  the  Lafayette,  may  be  used  in  the  manufac- 
ture of  brick.  However,  care  must  be  exercised  in  drying  such  clavs 
in  order  to  prevent  cracking. 


FRANKLIN  COUNTY. 

GEOLOGY. 

Franklin  County  is  underlain  by  Grand  Gulf  strata  consisting  of 
sandstones,  clays  and  sands.  The  surface  deposits  are  of  Lafayette 
and  Columbia  age.  The  white  sandstones  of  the  Grand  Gulf  in 
Franklin  County  out-crop  in  a ridge  along  the  principal  divide,  which 
forms  what  is  termed  the  “Devil’s  Backbone.”  Below  is  given  the 
composition  of  a sample  of  gray,  Grand  Gulf  clay  from  Cassidy’s  Bluff, 
on  Homochitto  River: 


CLAYS  OF  MISSISSIPPI. 


37 


TABLE  No.  17. 

ANALYSIS  OF  GRAND  GULF  CLAY,  CASSIDY’S  BLUFF. 


Insoluble  matter 49.475 

Alumina 12 . 587 

Lime 13 . 190 

Potash 1.242 

Soda 152 

Magnesia 1 . 829 

Brown  oxide  of  manganese 266 

Peroxide  of  iron 5.538 

Phosphoric  acid 132 

Sulphuric  acid 033 

Carbonic  acid 9 . 555 

Organic  matter  and  water 5.876 


Ttoal 99.875 


CLAYS  AND  CLAY  INDUSTRY. 

The  clay  industry  in  this  county  has  been  only  slightly  developed. 
Surface  clays,  from  which  a good  grade  of  brick  may  be  manufactured, 
are  abundant,  and  for  that  reason,  the  future  of  the  industry  is  bright. 
The  best  clays  for  brick  are  the  surface,  residual  loess  and  the  Columbia 
loam. 

Meadville. — The  Meadville  Brick  Manufacturing  Company  was 
established  in  1907.  The  bricks  are  manufactured  by  the  stiff -mud 
process.  The  clay  used  is  a surface  clay  of  Columbia  age. 

The  analysis  of  the  Grand  Gulf  clay  from  Cassidy’s  Bluff,  referred 
to  under  the  head  of  Geology,  exhibits  nearly  32  per  cent  of  clay  sub- 
stance. It  has  the  proper  plasticity  for  a good,  stiff -mud  or  dry-pressed 
brick.  The  per  cent  of  lime  which  it  contains  would  be  detrimental 
unless  uniformly  distributed  in  the  clay.  On  account  of  the  fineness  of 
grain  of  the  sand  contained  in  the  clay,  the  ware  must  be  dried  with 
great  care  in  order  to  prevent  cracking. 

GREENE  COUNTY. 

GEOLOGY. 

Greene  County  is  one  of  the  counties  which  lies  within  the  area  of 
the  Grand  Gulf  outcrop.  The  formation  consists  for  the  most  part  of 
sands  and  of  greenish-gray  clays.  In  the  Leakesville  well  350  feet  of 
these  clays  were  penterated.  The  record  of  the  well  is  given  below: 


Record  of  the  Leakesville  Public  Well. 


Thickness. 

Depth. 

Feet. 

Feet. 

1.  Sandy,  yellow  clay 

6 

6 

2.  Bluish,  pipe  clay 

16 

3.  Water-bearing  sand 

24 

40 

4.  Greenish-gray  clay 

390 

5.  Water-bearing  sand 

10 

400 

6.  Bluish  clay 

450 

7.  Water-bearing  sand 

30 

480 

38 


CLAYS  OF  MISSISSIPPI. 


The  Grand  Gulf  clays  are  exposed  in  the  banks  of  Chickasawhay 
River  at  Leakesville.  They  overlie  a stratum  of  white  sand.  The 
water  flowing  over  the  surface  of  the  clays  leaves  a yellow,  iron,  rust- 
like incrustation  or  coloration.  This  iron-deposit  is,  doubtless,  pro- 
duced by  the  oxidation  of  the  iron  pyrites  contained  in  the  clay. 

The  bed-rock  of  Greene  County  is  largely  concealed  by  beds  of 
Lafayette  and  Columbia.  A range  of  -high  hills  in  the  southeastern 
part  of  the  county  is  capped  by  Lafayette  sands  and  clays.  Numerous 
springs  are  found  along  the  line  of  contact  between  the  sands  and  the 
underlying  clays. 

CLAYS  AND  CLAY  INDUSTRY. 

The  clays  of  Greene  County  belong  to  the  Grand  Gulf,  the  Lafayette 
and  the  Columbia  formations.  The  clays  of  the  Lafayette  are  gen- 
erally red  in  the  upper  part  and  mottled  near  the  base  of  the  formation. 
At  many  points  the  Columbia  loam  rests  directly  upon  the  surface  of 
this  clay,  no  sand  or  gravel  being  present.  The  clays  from  the 
Lafayette  and  the  Columbia  are  used  in  Greene  County  in  the  manu- 
facture of  brick. 

Leakesville . — The  Leakesville  Brick  Manufacturing  Company  w~as 
organized  in  1906.  The  bricks  are  molded  in  a stiff -mud  machine  of  the 
vertical  type.  They  are  dried  in  open  sheds  and  burned  in  scove  kilns. 
The  clay-pit  exhibits  three  kinds  of  clay,  as  shown  in  the  following 


section. 

Section  of.  Clay-Pit,  Leakesville.  Feet. 

4.  Sandy  soil 1 

3.  Sandy  loam,  yellow . 3 

2.  Gray  and  red-mottled,  plastic  clay 3 

1.  Greenish-gray  clay * 4 


In  the  analyses  given  below  No.  122  is  a sample  taken  from  layer 
No  1 ; No.  124  is  a sample  of  the  mixture  of  layers  Nos.  2 and  3,  used 
in  the  manufacture  of  brick. 

TABLE  No.  18. 

ANALYSES  OF  LEAKESVILLE  CLAYS. 

No.  122.  No.  124. 


Moisture  (H2O) 2.86  1.54 

Volatile  matter  (CO2,  etc.) 3.94  2.95 

Silicon  dioxide  (Si02) 62.31  84.76 

Aluminum  oxide  (AI2O 3) 5.52  2.62 

Iron  oxide  (Fe203) 17.48  6.98 

Calcium  oxide  (CaO) 7.50  0.57 

Magnesium  oxide  (MgO) 0.41  0.02 

Sulphur  trioxide  (SO3) 0.34  0.25 


Total. 


100.36 


99.69 


Mississippi  Geological  Survey 


Plate  VI 


Bull  No.  4. 


A POWER-PLANT  OF  THE  SUMMIT  BRICK  MANUFACTURING  COMPANY,  SUMMIT. 


B.  CLAY-PIT  OF  THE  LEAKESVILLE  BRICK  MANUFACTURING  COMPANY,  LEAKESVILLE 


CLAYS  OF  MISSISSIPPI. 


39 


TABLE  No.  18 — Continued. 

RATIONAL  ANALYSES. 

Clay  substance 13.96  6.62 

Free  silica 53.87  80.76 

Fluxing  impurities 25.73  7.82 

The  yellow,  sandy  loam  slakes  readily,  but  does  not  contain  much 
clay  substance.  The  mottled  clay  does  not  contain  as  much  sand  as 
the  yellow  clay  and  the  particles  adhere  more  firmly.  The  gray  clay, 
at  the  bottom,  contains  the  highest  per  cent  of  clay  substance.  It  also 
contains  a high  per  cent  of  fluxing  impurities,  especially  iron.  The 
iron  in  the  form  of  an  oxide  originates  from  the  decomposition  of  iron 
pyrites  contained  in  the  clay. 

When  properly  treated  the  clays  from  layers  2 and  3 will  make  a 
fair  quality  of  . brick. 


HANCOCK  COUNTY. 

GEOLOGY. 

The  rocks  of  the  Grand  Gulf  and  the  Port  Hudson  underlie  the 
mantle-rock  of  this  county.  The  mantle-rock  consists  of  beds  of 
Lafayette  sands  and  loams,  of  Columbia  age,  as  well  as  residual  clays 
and  sands  from  the  older  formations. 

CLAYS  AND  CLAY  INDUSTRY. 

The  clay  industry  of  Hancock  County  has  been  but  little  developed. 
A surface  clay  is  being  used  in  the  manufacture  of  brick  at  only  one 
point. 

Bay  St.  Louis. — In  1902  Mr.  W.  T.  Moon  located  a brick  plant 
about  three  miles  north  of  Bay  St.  Louis.  The  clay  used  is  a mottled 
sandy  clay  from  a surface  deposit.  The  stratigraphy  of  the  clay-pit 
is  given  below. 


Section  of  the  Moon  Clay-Pit,  Bay  St.  Louis.  Feet. 

4.  Soil,  sandy 1 

3.  Sandy  loam 3 

2.  Red  and  blue  sandy  clay 3 

1.  Sand 1 


Layers  2 and  3 are  used  in  the  manufacture  of  brick.  The  bricks  are 
molded  in  a steam-power,  soft-mud  machine  and  burned  in  up-draft 
kilns,  after  being  dried  in  sheds. 

The  sandy  loam  slakes  readily  and  does  not  contain  a high  per  cent 
of  clay  substance.  Layer  No.  2 is  a more  plastic  clay,  which  does  not 


40 


CLAYS  OF  MISSISSIPPI. 


slake  as  readily  as  the  sandy  loam.  The  amount  of  fluxing  impurities 
is  not  excessive,  but  the  clay  contains  enough  iron  to  give  a red  color 
to  the  burned  product. 

" " ^ , • U 

HARRISON  COUNTY. 

GEOLOGY. 

The  principal  bed-rock  formation  of  Harrison  County  is  the  Grand 
Gulf.  The  sub-surface  of  the  coastal  area  is  composed  of  white  sands 
and  greenish  marls  which  are  younger  than  the  Grand  Gulf.  These 
sediments  were  referred  to  the  Port  Hudson  epoch  by  Dr.  Hilgard. 
The  white  sands  were  named  the  Biloxi  sands  by  Mr.  L.  C.  Johnson. 
The  term  Ponchartrain  has  been  applied  to  a group  of  coastal  clays 
typically  developed  near  Lake  Ponchartrain  and  represented  in  Har- 
rison County.  The  mantle-rock  in  the  northern  part  of  the  county 
consists  of  beds  of  sands  and  gravels,  and  the  residual  clays  and  sands 
of  the  Grand  Gulf. 

CLAYS  AND  CLAY  INDUSTRY. 

The  clays  of  Harrison  County,  which  are  being  used  in  the  manu- 
facture of  brick,  are  surface  clays,  probably  of  Columbia  age. 

Landon. — The  Landon  Brick  and  Tile  Company  was  established 
in  1902.  The  clay  is  brought  from  the  pit  in  cars  by  the  aid  of  drum 
and  hoist.  It  is  tempered  in  a pug-mill  and  molded  in  a stiff-mud 
machine  of  the  horizontal  type.  A side-cutting  table  is  used.  The 
bricks  are  stacked  in  sheds  for  drying,  and  burned  in  up-draft,  clamp- 
kilns.  The  clay -pit  contains  the  following  layers: 

Section  of  Landon  Clay-Pit. 

Feet. 


3.  Yellowish  loam  and  sand 5 

2.  Bluish  or  mottled  clay 4 

1.  Dark  clay  wdth  shells 6 


Clay  No.  2 is  mixed  with  a portion  of  sandy  clay  from  No.  3 in  the 
manufacture  of  brick.  A mixture  of  one-third  sand  to  two-thirds  clay 
seems  to  give  the  best  results.  The  sand  decreases  the  shrinkage  and 
insures  more  successful  results  in  drying  and  burning.  The  compo- 
sition of  this  mixture  is  given  in  No.  125,  in  the  table  below;  No.  126 
is  from  layer  No.  2: 


Mississippi  Geological  Survey. 


Plate  VII 


Bull  No.  4 


A.  PLANT  OF  THE  LANDON  BRICK  AND  TILE  COMPANY,  LANDON. 


B.  CLAY-PIT  OF  THE  LANDON  BRICK  AND  TILE  COMPANY,  LANDON 


CLAYS  OF  MISSISSIPPI. 


41 


TABLE  No.  19. 

ANALYSES  OF  LANDON  BRICK  CLAYS. 


Moisture  (H2O) 

Volatile  matter  (CO2,  etc.) 

Silicon  dioxide  (Si02) 

Aluminum  oxide  (AI2O3) . . 

Iron  oxide  (Fe20s) 

Calcium  oxide  (CaO) 

Magnesium  oxide  (MgO) . . 
Sulphur  trioxide  (SO3) ... 

Total 


RATIONAL  ANALYSES. 

Clay  substance 

Free  silica 

Fluxing  impurities 


No.  125.  No.  126. 
. 2.28  2.01 

. 4.17  4.84 

. 78.00  77.52 

. 7.72  10.87 

. 5.05  3.80 

. 1.40  0.60 

. 0.16  0.43 

. 0.30  0.08 


99.08  100.15 


19.53  27.50 

66.19  60.79 

6.91  4.91 


The  amount  of  sand-dilution  reduces  the  clay-content  from  27.50 
per  cent  in  the  untempered  clay  to  19.53  per  cent  in  the  mixture.  The 
amount  of  free  silica  is  increased  by  5.40  per  cent.  There  is  also  an 
increase  in  the  amount  of  fluxing  impurities  from  4.91  per  cent  in  the 
untempered  clay  to  6.91  per  cent  in  the  mixture. 

Biloxi. — The  Imperial  Brick  Company  of  Biloxi,  established  a 
plant  on  Back  Bay  in  1906  for  the  manufacture  of  brick.  The  clay 
is  prepared  by  a granulator  and  disintegrator  and  tempered  in  a hori- 
zontal pug-mill.  The  bricks  are  molded  in  a stitf-mud  end-cut  machine. 
They  are  dried  in  sheds  and  burned  in  rectangular,  up-draft  kilns.  The 
clay-pit  contains  the  following  layers: 


Clay-Pit  of  the  Imperial  Brick  Company,  Biloxi.  Feet. 


3.  Yellow  clay 3 

2.  Sand  and  gravel 3 

1.  Greenish-colored  clay 4 


TABLE  No.  20. 

ANALYSES  OF  IMPERIAL  BRICK  COMPANY’S  CLAYS,  BILOXI. 

No.  133.  No.  134. 


Moisture  (H20) 2.52  6.71 

Volatile  matter  (CO2.  etc.) 3.30  8.08 

Silicon  dioxide  (Si02) 82.00  55.73 

Aluminum  oxide  (AI2O3) 7.67  17.90 

Iron  oxide  (Fe20.3) 3.00  8.50 

Calcium  oxide  (CaO) 0.50  0.25 

Magnesium  oxide  (MgO) 0.09  0.54 

Sulphur  trioxide  (SO3) 0.17  1.38 


Total 99.25  99.09 


RATIONAL  ANALYSES. 

Clay  substance 19.40  45.29 

Free  silica 70.27  28.34 

Fluxing  impurities 3.76  8.67 


No.  133  is  from  layer  No.  3;  No.  134  is  from  layer  No.  1. 


42 


CLAYS  OF  MISSISSIPPI. 


The  air-shrinkage  of  the  surface  clay  is  9 per  cent;  its  total  shrink- 
age is  10  per  cent.  The  amount  of  water  required  to  render  it  plastic 
is  21  per  cent.  The  raw  clay  has  a tensile  strength  of  210  pounds;  the 
burned  briquets  have  a tensile  strength  of  315  pounds.  When 
mixed  with  10  per  cent  of  coal  the  clay  required  22  per  cent  of  water  to 
render  it  plastic ; has  an  air-shrinkage  of  8 per  cent ; a total  shrinkage 
of  10  per  cent;  tensile  strength,  raw,  140  pounds,  and  burned  278 
pounds.  The  clay  mixed  with  10  per  cent  of  coal  cinders  requires  23 
per  cent  of  water  to  render  it  plastic;  has  an  air-shrinkage  of  8 per 
cent;  a total  shrinkage  of  9 per  cent;  has  a tensile  strength,  raw,  of 
230  pounds,  and  a tensile  strength,  burned,  of  350  pounds. 

The  analyses  of  two  samples  of  clay  collected  by  Mr.  A.  F.  Crider 
from  outcrops  at  Biloxi  are  given  in  the  following  table: 

TABLE  No.  21. 

ANALYSES  OF  BRICK  CLAYS  FROM  BILOXI. 


No. 

116. 

No. 

120. 

Moisture  (H2O) 

...  6. 

.31 

6. 

.76 

Volatile  matter  (CO2,  etc.) 

.20 

6. 

.49 

Silicon  dioxide  (Si02) 

...  68 

.80 

58. 

.80 

Aluminum  oxide  (AI2O3) 

...  12 

.55 

14. 

. 52 

Iron  oxide  (Fe20.3> 

.00 

6. 

.25 

Calcium  oxide  (CaO) 

. . . 1 

.92 

0 

.92 

Magnesium  oxide  (MgO) 

...  0 

.27 

0 

.60 

Sulphur  trioxide  (SO.3) 

...  0 

.08 

0 

.91 

Total 

. . .100 

.13 

95 

.25 

RATIONAL  ANALYSES. 

Clay  substance 

.75 

36 

.73 

Free  silica 

49 

.60 

36 

.59 

Fluxing  impurities .' 

7 

.27 

8 

.68 

No.  116  is  from  the  Watkins  place  and  No.  120  is  from  the  clay-pit 
of  the  Imperial  Brick  Company.  These  two  clays  contain  a high  per- 
centage of  clay  substance,  and,  owing  to  their  physical  condition  they 
are  suitable  for  the  manufacture  of  brick.  They  will  each  bear  con- 
siderable sand-dilution.  However,  they  appear  to  possess  moderately 
weak  bonding  power,  so  that  if  the  clay  receives  much  dilution  it  will 
be  necessary  to  burn  the  ware  to  the  point  of  viscosity  in  order  to  in- 
sure the  necessary  strength.  It  is  quite  probable  that  saw  dust  mixed 
with  the  clay  would  give  better  results  than  sand,  as  sand  reduces 
the  bonding  power. 

Saucier. — At  Saucier  there  in  a stiff  clay  varying  in  color  from  red  to 
blue  and  having  the  following  composition: 


Mississippi  Geological  Survey. 


Plate  VIII. 


Bull.  No.  4. 


A.  KILNS  OF  THE  IMPERIAL  BRICK  COMPANY,  BILOXI. 


B CLAY-PIT  OF  THE  IMPERIAL  BRICK  COMPANY,  BILOXI. 


CLAYS  OF  MISSISSIPPI. 


43 


TABLE  No.  22. 

ANALYSIS  OF  SAUCIER  CLAY. 

No.  119. 


Moisture  (HjO) 4.60 

Volatile  matter  (CO2,  etc.) 6.72 

Silicon  dioxide  (Si02> 62.30 

Aluminum  oxide  (AI2O3) 10.53 

Iron  oxide  (Fe20:i) 10.35 

Calcium  oxide  (CaO) 1.50 

Magnesium  oxide  (MgO) 0.45 

Sulphur  trioxide  (SOs) . 0.20 


Total 96.65 

RATIONAL  ANALYSIS. 

Clay  substance •.  . . 26.64 

Free  silica 46.19 

Fluxing  impurities 12.50 


This  clay  requires  25  per  cent  of  water  to  render  it  plastic;  has 
an  air-shrinkage  of  13  per  cent;  a total  shrinkage  of  15  per  cent.  In 
the  raw  state  it  has  a tensile  strength  of  286  pounds ; and  a strength  of 
572  pounds,  when  burned.  In  table  No.  23  the  results  of  the  dilution 
of  Saucier  clay,  with  various  proportions  of  non-plastic  substances,  are 
given : 

TABLE  No.  23. 


SAUCIER  CLAY  DILUTION. 


Mixture. 

Water 

required. 

Shrinkage. 

Air. 

Total. 

Tensile  Strength. 
Raw,  lbs.  Burned, 

Clay  and  \ sand 

22.13% 

7% 

10% 

170 

154 

Clay  and  i sand 

20.96% 

6% 

10% 

183 

134 

Clay  and  l sand 

24.16% 

8% 

10% 

195 

123 

Clay  and  10  % cinders 

23.93% 

9% 

11% 

184 

240 

Clay  and  10%  coal 

25.89% 

9% 

12% 

173 

163 

The  amount  of  clay  substance  in  this  clay  is  about  that  of  the  Lan- 
don  clay,  which  requires  a sand  dilution  of  one-third.  On  account  of 
the  physical  nature  of  the  clay,  dilution  of  some  kind  is  necessary  in 
order  to  facilitate  drying.  Judging  from  the  above  results  the  cinder- 
dilution  is  the  best. 

Ten-Mile. — At  Ten-Mile  in  Harrison  County,  there  is  an  outcrop 
of  grayish-green  clays  belonging  to  the  Grand  Gulf.  These  clays 
weather  to  a yellow  or  brownish-red.  A sample  of  the  clay  has  the 
following  composition: 

TABLE  No.  24. 

ANALYSIS  OF  TEN-MILE  CLAY. 


No.  136. 

Moisture  (H2O) 5.32 

Volatile  matter  (CO2,  etc.) 7.31 

Silicon  dioxide  (SiOi) 64.07 

Aluminum  oxide  (AI2O3) 14.40 

Iron  oxide  (FejOs) 6.27 

Calcium  oxide  (CaO) 0.03 

Magnesium  oxide  (MgO) 1.09 

Sulphur  trioxide  (SO3) 1.86 

Total . .100.35 


44 


CLAYS  OF  MISSISSIPPI. 


TABLE  No.  24 — Continued. 

RATIONAL  ANALYSIS. 

Clay  substance 36.43 

Free  silica 42.04 

Fluxing  impurities 9.25 

The  per  cent  of  clay  substance  in  this  clay  is  high  as  compared  with 
the  Landon  mixture.  Some  form  of  dilution  is  essential  to  the  suc- 
cessful working  of  this  clay.  The  free-silica  content  is  of  very  fine 
grain.  The  clay  thus  retains  its  moisture  very  tenaciously  and  some 
form  of  dilution  is  necessary  to  insure  rapid  and  successful  drying. 
Sandy  loams  are  found  in  the  surface  deposits  which  may  be  utilized 
for  this  purpose. 

Tchouticabouff  River. — A sample  of  clay  collected  from  Tchoutica- 
bouff  River  by  Mr.  A.  F.  Crider,  has  the  following  chemical  properties: 

TABLE  No.  25. 

ANALYSIS  OF  CLAY  FROM  TCHOUTICABOUFF  RIVER. 

No.  118. 


Moisture  (H2O) 1.46 

Volatile  matter  (CO2,  etc.) 7.91 

Silicon  dioxide  (Si02) 80.16 

Aluminum  oxide  (AI2O3) 2.60 

Iron  oxide  (Fe20s) 1.35 

Calcium  oxide  (CaO) 0.75 

Magnesium  Oxide  (MgO) 0.45 

Sulphur  trioxide  (SO3) 1.11 


Total 95.79 

RATIONAL  ANALYSIS. 

Clay  substance 6.57 

Free  silica 76.98 

Fluxing  impurities 3.66 


The  clay  is  dark,  due,  doubtless,  to  the  presence  of  organic  matter. 
It  burns  white.  It  contains  only  a small  per  cent  of  clay  substance, 
and,  therefore,  lacks  bonding  power.  The  clay  requires  the  addition 
of  20  per  cent  of  water  to  render  it  plastic;  has  an  air-shrinkage  of  6 
per  cent,  and  a total  shrinkage  of  6 per  cent;  the  tensile  strength  of 
the  raw  clay  is  85  pounds;  the  tensile  strength  of  the  burned  clay  is 
45  pounds. 


JACKSON  COUNTY. 

GEOLOGY. 

Jackson  is  one  of  the  counties  of  Mississippi  bordering  on  the  Gulf. 
The  surface  formations  of  the  county  are  underlain  by  rocks  belonging 
to  the  Grand  Gulf  and  to  the  Port  Hudson  formations.  The  mantle 
rock  consists  of  Lafayette  sands  and  clays,  Columbia  loam  and  the 


Mississippi  Geological  Survey 


Plate  IX 


Bull.  No.  4. 


A.  SOFT-MUD,  HORSE-POWER  BRICK-MACHINE,  MOSS  POINT. 


B.  EDGING  BRICK  ON  OPEN  YARD,  MOSS  POINT. 


CLAYS  OF  MISSISSIPPI. 


45 


residual  material  from  the  bed-rock  formations.  Alluvial  clays,  sands 
and  loams  have  been  deposited  along  the  flood-plain  of  Pascagoula 
River,  which  constitutes  the  principal  line  of  drainage  for  Jackson 
County. 

CLAYS  AND  CLAY  INDUSTRY. 

The  clays  of  Jackson  County,  which  are  being  utilized  in  the  manu- 
facture of  brick,  belong  to  a surface  deposit,  probably  of  Columbia  age. 
The  clays  are,  as  a general  rule,  yellow  or  blue  and  of  a sandy  nature. 

Moss  Point. — At  Moss  Point  Mr.  A.  Blumer  manufactures  building 
brick  by  the  soft-mud  process.  The  bricks  are  molded  in  a soft-mud 
machine  which  is  operated  by  horse-power.  They  are  dried  in  open 
yards  and  sheds,  and  are  burned  in  rectangular,  up-draft  kilns.  The 
clay-pit  contains  a yellow  sand  or  sandy  clay  overlying  about  three 
feet  or  more  of  yellow  and  blue  clay.  The  two  are  mixed  in  order  to 
produce  the  brick. 

Orange  Grove.  — In  1906  The  Orange  Grove  Brick  and  Tile  Com- 
pany erected  a plant  for  the  manufacture  of  brick  by  the  dry-press 
method.  The  clay-pit  contains  a layer  of  gray  or  yellow  clay  resting 
upon  a bed  of  sandy  blue  and  yellow  clay.  The  chemical  composition 
of  the  yellow  clay  is  shown  in  the  following  analysis: 

TABLE  No.  26. 

ANALYSIS  OF  ORANGE  GROVE  CLAY. 

No.  121. 


Moisture  (H2O) 3.15 

Volatile  matter  (CO2,  etc.) 5.12 

Silicon  dioxide  (Si02) 72.23 

Aluminum  oxide  (AI2O3) 12.63 

Iron  oxide  (Fe20.j) 5.87 

Calcium  oxide  (CaO) 0.50 

Magnesium  oxide  (MgO) 0.09 

Sulphur  trioxide  (SO3) 0.17 


Total 99.76 

RATIONAL  ANALYSIS. 

Clay  substance 31.95 

Free  silica 52.91 

Fluxing  impurities 6.65 


The  per  cent  of  clay  substance  is  highest  in  the  bottom  layer.  It 
is  evident  that  one-half  of  the  clay  consists  of  sand.  In  crushing  the 
clay  there  is  a tendency  for  the  more  plastic  portions  to  form  pellets. 
These  pellets  are  not  always  destroyed  in  molding.  In  order  for  the 
brick  to  have  the  proper  tensile  strength  it  is  necessary,  in  burning,  to 
raise  the  temperature  of  the  clay  to  viscosity,  at  which  point  reunion  of 
the  particles  takes  place. 


CLAYS  OF  MISSISSIPPI. 


46 


Ocean  Springs. — A sample  of  clay  collected  by  Mr.  A:  F.  Crider 
from  an  out-crop  at  Ocean  Springs,  has  the  following  composition: 

TABLE  No.  27. 

ANALYSIS  OF  OCEAN  SPRINGS  CLAY. 

No.  117. 


Moisture  (H2O) 5.16 

Volatile  matter  (CO2,  etc.) 6.94 

Silicon  dioxide  (SiOa) 61.27 

Aluminum  oxide  (AI2O3) 17.97 

Iron  oxide  (Fe203) 3.88 

Calcium  oxide  (CaO) 1.10 

Magnesium  oxide  (MgO) 0.32 

Sulphur  trioxide  (SO  3) 0.89 


Total 97.53 


RATIONAL  ANALYSIS. 


Clay  substance 45.46 

Free  silica 38.77 

Fluxing  impurities 6.25 


The  clay  contains  a high  per  cent  of  clay  substance,  and,  since  the 
sand  contained  is  in  a finely  divided  state,  considerable  difficulty  is 
experienced  in  drying  it  successfully.  Further  sand-dilution  would 
result  in  a loss  of  bonding  power.  This  loss  could  be  met  only  by  hard 
burning.  The  clay  slakes  slowly  and  requires  22  per  cent  of  water  to 
render  it  plastic.  The  tensile  strength  of  the  raw  clay  is  200  pounds 
per  square  inch.  The  burned  briquets  have  a tensile  strength  of  450 
pounds  per  square  inch.  Some  of  the  clays  cracked  very  badly  at 
the  point  of  incipient  fusion. 


JASPER  COUNTY. 

GEOLOGY. 

The  northeastern  portion  of  Jasper  County  is  underlain  by  the 
Calcareous  Claiborne,  consisting  of  marls  and  sands.  The  north-cen- 
tral portion  of  the  county  is  underlain  by  Jackson  clays,  marls  and 
sands.  The  south-central  portion  is  underlain  by  the  Vicksburg  lime- 
stone, and  the  southwestern  portion  by  the  Grand  Gulf  clays.  These 
bed-rock  formations  are  mantled  by  deposits  of  sand,  clays  and  loam 
belonging  to  the  Lafayette  and  the  Columbia. 

CLAYS  AND  CLAY  INDUSTRY. 

The  clay  industry  has  had  very  little  development  in  Jasper  County. 
Clays  suitable  for  the  manufacture  of  brick  are  to  be  found  in 
the  Lafayette  and  the  Columbia  formations,  and  the  residual 


Mississippi  Geological  Survey 


Bull.  No.  4 


Plate  X. 


A.  GRAND  GULF  WHITE  CLAY,  STONINGTON 


B.  PRESSED  BRICK  MADE  FROM  GRAND  GULF  CLAY,  STONINGTON. 


CLAYS  OF  MISSISSIPPI. 


47 


clavs  of  the  older  formations,  particularly  the  Jackson  and  the  Grand 
Gulf.  These  residual  clays  will,  in  most  instances,  require  mixing 
with  sand  in  order  to  insure  successful  drying. 


JEFFERSON  COUNTY. 

GEOLOGY. 

The  bed-rock  formations  of  Jefferson  County  belong  to  the  Grand 
Gulf.  The  Grand  Gulf  rocks  comprise  sands,  silicious  clays,  gravels 
and  sandstones.  The  overlying  beds  of  mantle-rock  consist  of  sands 
and  gravels  of  the  Lafayette  and  the  loams  of  the  Columbia. 

The  stratigraphy  of  the  mantle-rock  and  its  relation-  to  the  under- 
lying bed-rock,  is  revealed  in  the  following  section  taken  from  a rail- 
road cut  at  Fayette. 

Section  at  Fayette. 

Feet. 


4.  Brownish,  yellow  loam 6 

3.  Gravel  and  loam 3 

2.  Purple  to  red  or  green  sticky  clays 6 

1.  Gray  clay  with  thin  layers  of  sandstone 5 


Nos.  1 and  2 are  of  Grand  Gulf  age;  No.  3 is  Lafayette;  and  No.  4 
Columbia.  In  a small  draw  west  of  the  railroad  station  at  Fayette 
another  section  is  exposed  as  follows: 


Section  West  of  Station,  Fayette. 


4.  Brown  loam 

3.  Sandy  clay  and  gravel 

2.  Variegated  clay 

1.  White  sandstone 


Feet. 
. . . 4 
. . . 6 
. . . 5 
. . . 4 


CLAYS  AND  CLAY  INDUSTRY. 

The  clays  of  Jefferson  County,  which  have  been  used  in  the  manu- 
facture of  brick,  belong  to  the  Columbia  and  to  the  Grand  Gulf  for- 
mations. The  Columbia  clays  are  brown  or  yellow,  and  may  be  used 
in  any  of  the  processes  of  brick  manufacture,  viz:  Soft-mud,  stiff- 

mud  or  dry-press.  The  Grand  Gulf  clays  are  gray  or  white,  are  plastic 
and^contain  considerable  kaolin. 

Stonington* — The  Stonington  Brick  Company  was  organized  in 
1894,  for  the  manufacture  of  pressed  brick.  The  plant  was  recently 


♦Since  this  report  went  to  press  the  Stonington  plant  has  been  destroyed  by  fire. 


48 


CLAYS  OF  MISSISSIPPI. 


purchased  by  Mr.  R.  J.  Searcy  and  is  now  operated  and  managed  by 
him.  The  clay  is  prepared  in  a dry -pan  and  molded  in  a dry-press 
machine.  The  Columbia  clay  is  used,  which  produces  a red  brick:  - 
The  Grand  Gulf  clay  produces  a gray  or  white  brick.  By  mixing  these 
two  clays  it  is  possible  to  produce  a speckled  or  mottled  brick.  The 
bricks  are  burned  in  a rectangular,  down-draft  kiln,  in  a beehive  kiln 
and  in  a clamp-kiln.  In  one  portion  of  the  clay-pit  the  following 
layers  of  clay  are  exposed: 


Section  in  Stonington  Clay-Pit.  Feet. 

4.  Brown  loam  clay 10 

3.  Blue  clay  with  white  concretions 6 

2.  Sandstone  in  layers 8 

1.  Clay,  white  to  gray.  8 to  28 


In  another  portion  of  the  clay-pit  are  fifteen  to  twenty  feet  of  a 
shale-like,  white  to  bluish-gray  clay.  A sample  of  this  clay  has  the 
following  chemical  composition: 

TABLE  No.  28. 

ANALYSIS  OF  STONINGTON  WHITE  CLAY. 


Moisture  (H2O) 1.24 

Volatile  matter  (CO2) 4.08 

Silica  (Si02> 78.17 

Alumina  (AI2O3) 13.23 

Iron  oxide  (Fe2C>3) 1.73 

Lime  (CaO) 28 

Magnesia  (MgO) 56 

Sulphur  trioxide  (SO 3) Trace. 


Total 99.29 

RATIONAL  ANALYSIS. 

Clay  base . . 33.53 

Free  silica 57.87 

Fluxing  impurities 2.57 


This  clay  may  be  classed  as  a stoneware  clay.  In  the  process  of 
burning  it  becomes  white  or  yellowish  white.  It  is  much  more  re- 
fractory than  the  brown  clay  and  requires  a much  higher  temperature 
to  produce  a hard  brick.  Its  physical  properties  will  be  discussed 
more  at  length  under  a discussion  of  stoneware  clays  to  comprise  a 
future  report. 


JEFFERSON  DAVIS  COUNTY. 

GEOLOGY. 

The  Grand  Gulf  forms  the  bed-rock  of  Jefferson  Davis  County. 
This  formation  consists  of  beds  of  sands,  gravels  and  gray  clays.  The 
eroded  sarface  of  the  Grand  Gulf  is  very  largely  concealed  by  clays,. 


CLAYS  OF  MISSISSIPPI. 


49 


gravels  and  colored  sands  of  the  Lafayette  and  also  by  the  loams  of  the 
Columbia.  The  greater  part  of  the  surface  clays  of  the  county  lies 
along  the  divide  between  Leaf  River  and  Pearl  River.  In  some  places 
the  tributaries  of  these  streams  have  cut  through  the  surficial  deposits 
and  exposed  the  bed-rock. 

CLAYS  AND  CLAY  INDUSTRY. 

The  clay  industry  of  Jefferson  Davis  County  is  in  an  undeveloped 
condition.  Clays  suitable  for  the  manufacture  of  brick  are  to  be  found 
in  the  surficial  formations.  The  Columbia  contains,  in  some  localities, 
particularly  along  the  slopes  of  small  valleys,  beds  of  clay  and  loam 
which,  under  proper  treatment,  will  be  found  to  be  suitable  for  the  man- 
ufacture of  brick.  From  the  higher  lands  much  of  the  Columbia  has 
been  removed  by  erosion,  so  that  the  soils  are  formed  directly  from  the 
Lafayette  sands.  The  Lafayette  also  contains  beds  of  clays,  some  of 
which,  with  careful  treatment,  may  be  utilized  in  the  manufacture  of 
brick.  The  Grand  Gulf  clays,  when  they  have  been  weathered  thor- 
oughly, afford  good  material  for  brick.  The  unweathered  clays  of  this 
formation  are  not,  as  a rule,  suitable  for  brick.  The  usefulness  of  the 
Grand  Gulf  clays  is  generally  very  much  impaired  by  the  difficulty  ex- 
perienced in  drying  them. 


JONES  COUNTY. 

GEOLOGY. 

The  Grand  Gulf  formation  constitutes  the  bed-rock  of  Jones 
County.  The  strata  of  the  Grand  Gulf  consist  of  sands,  clays  and 
sandstones;  the  clays  predominate.  The  town-well  at  Ellisville 
passed  through  the  Grand  Gulf  strata  into  the  underlying  formations. 
The  section  of  this  well  is  given  below.  At  least  six  hundred  feet  of  the 
rocks  belong  to  the  Grand  Gulf. 


Section  of  Ellisville  Well. 

Thickness. 

Feet. 

Depth. 

Feet. 

1. 

Sand  and  gravel 

...  80 

80 

2. 

Green  clay 

...  280 

360 

3. 

Sand 

...  10 

370 

4. 

Green  clay 

...  230 

600 

5. 

Sand  rock 

...  12 

612 

6. 

Greenish  marl 

...  288 

900 

7. 

Shell  rock 

905 

8. 

Green  marl 

...  195 

1,100 

9. 

Shells : 

1,105 

10. 

Green  marl 

...  295 

1,400 

50 


CLAYS  OF  MISSISSIPPI. 


The  rocks  of  the  Grand  Gulf  are  generally  covered  with  sands  and 
gravels  of  the  Lafayette  and  the  Columbia  loams.  The  bright  red 
sands  of  the  Lafayette  are  particularly  prominent  along  the  divide 
between  Moselle  and  Ellisville.  The  Columbia  deposits  are  very  thin 
or  entirely  wanting  on  the  highest  lands  where  the  soils  are  formed 
largelv  from  the  Lafayette. 

CLAYS  ANY  CLAY  INDUSTRY. 

The  clays  of  Jones  County  belong  to  the  Columbia,  the  Lafayette 
and  the  Grand  Gulf.  The  Grand  Gulf  clays  in  this  county,  have  not 
been  used  with  much  success  in  the  manufacture  of  brick.  An 
attempt  to  make  brick  was  made  at  Ellisville  a few  years  ago,  and 
while  it  was  possible  to  mold  the  bricks,  all  attempts  to  dry  them 
successfully  failed. 

Ellisville. — The  local  stratigraphy  of  the  surface  clays  may  be  seen 
in  the  following  section  taken  in  a railroad  cut  north  of  the  station. 


Section  at  Ellisville.  Feet. 

4.  Soil,  sandy 1 

3.  Yellow  loam  (Columbia) 3 

2.  Yellow  sand  with  some  gravel  (Lafayette) 3 

1.  Clay,  greenish-gray  (Grand  Gulf) 10 


The  chemical  composition  of  a sample  from  No.  3 is  given  below: 
As  will  be  seen  from  this  analysis  this  layer  of  rock  contains  a very 
small  amount  of  clay  substance.  In  fact  there  is  not  enough  clay  con- 
tent for  the  manufacture  of  even  soft-mud  brick.  The  only  way  in 
which  it  could  be  utilized  would  be  by  the  addition  of  a more  plastic 
clay.  Such  clays  may  be  found  in  the  residual  deposits  of  the  Grand 
Gulf. 


TABLE  No.  29. 

ANALYSIS  OF  ELLISVILLE  CLAY. 


Moisture  (H2O) 

Volatile  matter  (CO2,  etc.) 

Silicon  dioxide  (Si02) 

Aluminum  oxide  (AI2O3) 

Iron  oxide  (Fe203) 

Calcium  oxide  (CaO) 

Magnesium  oxide  (MgO) 

QuInVmr  trinviflp  fSOi)  

No.  139. 

0.25 

1.57 

91.73 

0.37 

2.05 

1.67 

0.57 

0.13 

Total 

98.34 

RATIONAL  ANALYSIS. 

93 

91.16 

Fluxing  impurities 

4.23 

Mississippi  Geological  Survey, 


Plate  XI. 


Bull.  No.  4. 


A.  PLANT  OF  THE  LAUREL  BRICK  AND  TILE  COMPANY,  LAUREL. 


B LAFAYETTE  OVERLYING  GRAND  GULF  CLAY,  ELLISVILLF . 


CLAYS  OF  MISSISSIPPI. 


51 


The  greenish-gray  clay  from  No.  1 has  the  following  chemical  com- 
position: 


TABLE  No.  30. 


ANALYSIS  OF  ELLISVILLE  CLAY. 


Moisture  (H2O) 

Volatile  matter  (CO2.  etc.) 

Silicon  dioxide  (Si02) 

Aluminum  oxide  (AI2O3) . . 

Iron  oxide  (Fe20s) 

Calcium  oxide 

Magnesium  oxide  (MgO) . . 
Sulphur  trioxide  (SO  3)  . 


No.  138. 

.85 
. 2.64 

. 81.97 
. 2.95 

. 6.17 

.92 
. 15 
.21 


Total. 


95.86 


RATIONAL  ANALYSIS. 


Clay  substance 7.46 

Free  silica 77.46 

Fluxing  impurities 7.45 


This  clay  is  also  deficient  in  clay  content.  It  contains  a large  per 
cent  of  silica  in  the  form  of  a very  finely-divided  sand.  The  difficulties 
of  molding  the  clay  are  not  great;  but  the  molded  brick  cannot  be 
dried  successfully.  Because  of  the  already  small  amount  of  clay  sub- 
stance further  dilution  by  the  addition  of  sand  would  destroy  the 
bonding  power  of  the  clay. 

Laurel. — The  Laurel  Brick  and  Tile  Company  was  organized  in 
1900.  In  1907  the  location  of  the  plant  was  changed  and  new  ma- 
chinery installed.  The  clay  is  tempered  in  a horizontal  pug-mill.  It 
is  then  molded  in  a stiff-mud  machine,  and  the  bricks  separated  by  the 
use  of  an  end-cutter.  The  bricks  are  dried  in  a steam-dryer  and 
burned  in  up-draft,  clamp-kilns. 

The  clay -pit  contains  a yellow,  sandy,  top  clay;  below  this  is  a 
bluish-gray  clay  which  rests  upon  sand,  the  sand  in  turn  resting  upon  a 
greenish  clay.  A sample  of  the  gray  clay  has  the  following  compo- 
sition : 


TABLE  No.  31. 

ANALYSIS  OF  LAUREL  GRAY  CLAY. 


No.  75  O.  S. 

Moisture  (H2O) 1.22 

Volatile  matter  (CO2.  etc.) 3.66 

Silicon  dioxide  (Si02) 84.86 

Aluminum  oxide  (AI2O3) 5.28 

Iron  oxide  (Fe20s) 3.96 

Calcium  oxide  (CaO) 0.23 

Magnesium  oxide  (MgO) 0.45 

Sulphur  trioxide  (SO3) 0.00 


Total 99.66 


RATIONAL  ANALYSIS. 


Clay  substance 13.38 

Free  silica 78.76 

Fluxing  impurities • ; 4.64 


52 


CLAYS  OF  MISSISSIPPI. 


The  clay  requires  24  per  cent  of  water  to  render  it  plastic.  It  has  a 
specific  gravity  of  2.62.  The  average  tensile  strength  of  the  air-dried 
briquets  is  70  pounds  per  square  inch.  The  air-shrinkage  is  2 per 
cent.  The  color  of  the  burned  product  is  red. 


LAMAR  COUNTY. 

GEOLOGY. 


The  bed-rock  of  Lamar  County  belongs  to  the  Grand  Gulf  group. 
A large  part  of  the  surface  of  the  bed-rock  is  concealed  by  a mantle  of 
Lafayette  and  Columbia.  The  Lafayette  is  represented  by  orange- 
colored  sands  which  contain  lenticular  bodies  of  clay,  and  in  some 
localities  quantities  of  water-worn  gravels.  The  Columbia  forms  a 
thin  mantle  of  loam  which  is  sandy  in  the  upper  portions,  but  is  of  a 
clayey  nature  in  the  lower  part.  The  Grand  Gulf  stratigraphy  is 
revealed  by  the  well-record  of  the  Camp-Hinton  Lumber  Company  at 
Lumber  ton. 

General  Section  of  Camp-Hinton  Well , Lumberton. 

Thickness.  Depth. 

Feet.  Feet. 


1.  Surface  and  sand  clay 40  40 

2.  Water-bearing  sand  and  gravel 5 45 

3.  White  clay  and  fine  sand 650  695 

4.  Blue  and  green  clays 200  895 

5.  Blue  clay  and  sand 505  1,400 

6.  Soft  blue  clay  and  sand 400  1,800 


CLAYS  AND  CLAY  INDUSTRY. 

Lumberton.- — At  Lumberton  the  Lafayette  mottled  clays  are  being 
used  by  the  Lumberton  Brick  Manufacturing  Company  in  the  manu- 
facture of  stiff -mud  brick.  For  a number  of  years  the  Columbia  loam 
was  used  in  the  manufacture  of  brick  by  the  soft-mud  process.  The 
plant  was  established  in  1895.  Ten  years  later,  1905,  a new  company 
was  organized  and  new  machinery  installed. 

The  surface  clay  rests  on  the  greenish-gray  Grand  Gulf  clays  and  is 
probably  a residual  product  of  that  formation.  The  yellow,  sandy 
deposit  of  the  Columbia  mantles  the  Lafayette  clays.  The  clay-pit 
exhibits  the  following  layers: 


3. 

2. 

1. 


Clay-Pit  of  the  Lumberton  Brick  Company , Lumberton. 

Yellow  loam  (Columbia) 

Mottled  clay  (Lafayette) 

Greenish-gray  clay  (Grand  Gulf) 


Feet. 
3 to  4 
5 to  6 
5 


Mississippi  Geological  Survey, 


Plate  XII. 


Bull.  No.  4. 


A.  PLANT  OF  THE  LUMBERTON  BRICK  MANUFACTURING  COMPANY,  LUMBERTON. 


B.  STEAM-SHOVEL  USED  BY  THE  LUMBERTON  BRICK  MANU- 
FACTURING COMPANY,  LUMBERTON. 


Mississippi  Geological  Survey. 


Plate  XIII. 


Bull.  No.  4. 


A.  BRICK  PLANT  OF  A.  SEAVEY  AND  SONS,  BROOKHAVEN. 


B.  FLASHED  BRICK  MADE  BY  THE  BROOKHAVEN  PRESSED  BRICK  COMPANY,  BROOKHAVEN 


CLAYS  OF  MISSISSIPPI. 


53 


The  clay  is  mined  by  the  use  of  a steam  shovel,  and  transported  to 
the  clay  machine  by  means  of  cars  controlled  by  drum  and  hoist.  It  is 
tempered  in  a pug-mill  and  molded  in  a stiff-mud  machine.  The  bricks 
are  dried  in  open  sheds  and  in  steam-driers  and  burned  in  rectangular 
up-darft  kilns  of  the  clamp-type. 


LAWRENCE  COUNTY, 

GEOLOGY. 

Lawrence  County  lies  within  that  portion  of  the  State  which  is 
underlain  by  Grand  Gulf  strata.  Clays,  sands  and  gravels  form  the 
principal  constituents  of  the  group.  The  bed-rock  is  mantled  by 
deposits  of  Lafayette,  Columbia  and  the  alluvium  of  Pearl  River 
Valley. 

CLAYS  AND  CLAY  INDUSTRY. 

There  has  been  no  development  of  the  brick  industry  in  Lawrence 
County.  Suitable  clays  for  brick  manufacture  may  be  found  in  the 
two  surface  formations.  The  Lafayette  sandy  clays  may  be  used  in  the 
manufacture  of  brick  by  the  soft-mud  process.  The  more  plastic 
clays  of  the  Columbia  and  the  residual  clays  of  the  Grand  Gulf  will  be 
found  suitable  for  the  manufacture  of  stiff-mud  brick.  On  account  of 
the  fineness  of  grain  of  the  free  silica  in  the  Grand  Gulf,  great  care  in 
drying  is  necessary  in  order  to  prevent  cracking. 

LINCOLN  COUNTY. 

GEOLOGY. 

Lincoln  County  lies  within  the  area  of  the  Grand  Gulf  group.  The 
mantle-rock  consists  of  beds  of  gravel,  sands  and  loams  belonging  to  the 
Lafayette  and  the  Columbia.  The  Lafayette  beds,  as  a rule,  do  not 
exceed  fifty  feet  in  thickness,  while  the  Columbia  is  rarely  ever  half  that 
thickness.  Sands  and  gravels  comprise  the  major  part  of  the  Lafayette, 
but  there  are  also  beds  of  red,  mottled-red  and  white  clays  which  lie 
normally  at  the  base  of  the  formation.  On  the  high  ridges  between 
the  streams  the  Columbia  has  been  removed  in  many  places  and  the 
soils  are  formed  directlv  from  the  Lafavette. 


54 


CLAYS  OF  MISSISSIPPI. 


CLAYS  AND  CLAY  INDUSTRY. 

The  clays  which  have  thus  far  been  used  in  Lincoln  County  for  the 
manufacture  of  brick  belong  to  the  Columbia.  Bricks  have  been  manu- 
factured at  Brookhaven  and  Norfield. 

Brookhaven. — Messrs.  A.  C.  Seavey  and  Sons  established  a plant  for 
the  manufacture  of  brick  at  Brookhaven  in  the  year  1892.  The  clay 
used  is  a yellowish -brown,  surface  clay.  It  is  tempered  in  ring-pits- 
and  molded  by  hand.  The  bricks  are  dried  in  covered  sheds  by  pallet 
and  rack-system.  Two  kinds  of  up-draft  kilns  are  used,  round  and 
rectangular. 

The  plant  of  the  Brookhaven  Pressed  Brick  Company  was  estab- 
lished in  1906.  A surface  clay  of  Columbia  age  is  used  in  making 
brick.  The  clay  is  pulverized  in  a dry -pan  and  carried  by  a conveyor 
to  a screen,  after  which  it  passes  to  an  agitator  and  from  the  agitator 
to  the  press.  The  bricks  are  burned  in  rectangular,  up-draft  kilns. 

Norfield. — At  Norfield  the  surface-loam  clay  is  used  in  the  manu- 
facture of  brick  by  the  Norfield  Brick  Manufacturing  Company.  The 
present  plant  was  established  in  1905.  The  clay  is  crushed  by  the  use 
of  a granulator  and  disintegrator,  and  tempered  in  a horizontal  pug- 
mill.  The  clay  is  molded  in  a steam-power,  soft-mud  machine.  The 
bricks  are  placed  upon  pallets  and  dried  in  sheds.  The  bricks  are  burned 
in  rectangular  up-draft  kilns  of  the  clamp  variety. 

Plate  XIV. 


BUILDING  CONSTRUCTED  OF  BROOKHAVEN  PRESSED  BRICK,  SILVER  CREEK. 


CLAYS  OF  MISSISSIPPI. 


55 


MARION  COUNTY, 

GEOLOGY, 


The  bed-rock  formations  of  Marion  County  are  of  Grand  Gulf  age. 
The  surficial  deposits  of  the  county  belong  to  the  Lafayette,  the 
Columbia  and  the  alluvium  of  Pearl  River  Valley.  The  Grand  Gulf 
strata  consist  of  clays,  claystones,  sands  and  gravels.  A gravel-layer, 
which  probably  belongs  to  the  Grand  Gulf,  at  Columbia,  has  a thick- 
ness of  168  feet.  The  following  analyses  are  from  samples  of  Grand 
Gulf  clays;  the  first  was  taken  from  Burnett’s  Bluff  and  the  second  from 
Barnes’  White  Bluff: 


TABLE  No.  32. 

ANALYSES  OF  GRAND  GULF  CLAYS. 


No.  1.  No.  2. 


Insoluble  matter 83.691 

Alumina 8.347 

Lime 793 

Potash .827 

Soda 268 

Magnesia 1 . 053 

Brown  oxide  of  manganese 223 

Peroxide  of  iron 4.394 

Phosphoric  acid 148 

Sulphuric  acid 022 

Carbonic  acid 00 

Organic  matter  and  water 00 


77.438 

6.449 

4.800 

.709 

.101 

1.248 

.316 

2.989 

.111 

Trace. 

3.372 

2.554 


Total. 


99.766  100.087 


CLAYS  AND  CLAY  INDUSTRY. 

Columbia. — The  Columbia  clays  are  being  used  in  the  manufacture 
of  brick  by  the  soft-mud  process,  at  a point  about  one  mile  north  of 
Columbia  in  Pearl  River  Valley. 


PERRY  COUNTY. 

GEOLOGY. 

The  bed-rocks  of  Perry  County  belong  to  the  Grand  Gulf  group. 
These  rocks  outcrop  along  the  courses  of  the  streams.  They  consist 
of  greenish-colored  clays,  with  an  alum-like  taste,  and  of  white  sands. 
The  orange-colored  sands  of  the  Lafayette  and  the  yellow  loams  of  the 
Columbia  constitute  the  principal  surficial  deposits.  The  alluvium 
of  the  river  valleys  is  composed  largely  of  the  worked-over  materials  of 
these  two  formations. 


56 


CLAYS  OF  MISSISSIPPI. 


CLAYS  AND  CLAY  INDUSTRY. 

The  clay -bearing  formations  of  the  county  are  the  Grand  Gulf,  the 
Lafayette  and  the  Columbia.  The  clay  industry  has  received  very 
little  attention  as  yet.  Brick  clays  may  be  found  in  the  Lafayette 
and  the  Columbia  formations. 

Out-crops  of  Grand  Gulf  clays  are  exposed  along  the  courses  of  the 
streams,  and  in  some  places  in  railroad  cuts.  Exposures  of  the  latter 
type  are  to  be  found  near  Beaumont.  These  clays  are  greenish -gray 
in  fresh  exposures,  but  weather  to  red  or  yellow  in  residual  deposits. 
This  condition  is  brought  about  largely  by  the  decomposition  of  mar- 
casite,  which  is  present  in  the  clay.  The  weathered  clay  of  the  Grand 
Gulf  could  be  used  in  many  places  in  the  manufacture  of  brick.  There 
are  some  out-crops  which  contain  a very  high  per  cent  of  finely  divided 
silica.  These  clays  not  only  lack  bonding  power,  but  they  present 
difficulties  in  drying. 

PEARL  RIVER  COUNTY. 

GEOLOGY. 

Pearl  River  County  lies  within  the  Grand  Gulf  area.  The  surficial 
rocks  belong  to  the  Lafayette  and  to  the  Columbia.  Along  Pearl 
River  Valley  there  are  also  more  recent  deposits  of  alluvium.  At 
Poplarville,  one  of  the  highest  points  between  New  Orleans  and 
Meridian,  the  Lafayette  deep-red  sands  have  a thickness  of  about  fifty 
feet.  There  is  considerable  gravel  in  the  lower  part  of  the  formation, 
and  the  shallow  wells  obtain  their  water-supply  from  this  gravel-laver. 
The  quantity  of  gravel  varies  from  point  to  point.  The  Grand  Gulf 
clays  are  exposed  along  the  branches  of  Abolo  Chitto  and  other 
streams.  The  clays  are  often  interstratified  with  beds  of  lignite  or 
lignitic  clay.  Such  beds  are  usually  thin  and  contain  considerable 
quantities  of  iron  pyrites. 

CLAYS  AND  CLAY  INDUSTRY. 

Lacy. — The  surface  clays  of  Pearl  River  County  have  been  used  in 
the  manufacture  of  brick  at  Lacy.  The  clay  was  tempered  in  soaking 
pits  and  molded  by  hand.  The  bricks  were  dried  in  open  yards  and 
burned  in  scove  kilns.  The  clay  used  belongs  to  the  Columbia.  It  is  of 
a light  yellow  color  and  of  a sandy  type.  The  Lafayette  clays  occur  in 


Mississippi  Geological  Survey. 


Plate  XV. 


Bull.  No.  4. 


A.  LAFAYETTE  CAPPED  WITH  COLUMBIA  LOAM,  NEAR  WOODVILLE 


B.  FERRELL  BRICK  KILNS,  OSYKA. 


CLAYS  OF  MISSISSIPPI. 


0/ 


abundance  in  this  county,  and,  doubtless,  many  of  the  out-crops  con- 
tain clays  suitable  for  the  manufacture  of  brick.  The  Grand  Gulf  clays 
are,  as  a rule,  not  suitable  for  the  manufacture  of  brick  because  of  the 
difficulty  in  drying,  but  the  residual  clay  of  the  Grand  Gulf  may  be 
used  n making  common  brick. 

Caledonia. — Out-crops  of  Grand  Gulf  clay  occur  in  railroad  cuts  on 
the  New  Orleans  and  North  Eastern  Railroad  at  Caledonia.  The 
unweathered  clays  are  not  suitable  for  the  manufacture  of  brick. 

PIKE  COUNTY. 

GEOLOGY. 

Grand  Gulf  strata  underlie  the  surface  of  Pike  County.  The  sur- 
face of  the  Grand  Gulf  is  mantled  with  Lafayette  and  Columbia.  The 
gray  clays  of  the  bed-rock  are  found  in  the  sides  and  bottoms  of  the 
ravines  which  dissect  the  divides  between  the  stream-courses.  The 
Lafayette-reddish  sands  and  clays  contain  large  numbers  of  water-worn 
pebbles  in  some  outcrops.  The  Columbia  formation  does  not  appear  as 
thick  here  as  in  the  counties  nearer  the  Mississippi  River. 

CLAYS  AND  CLAY  INDUSTRY. 

The  clays  of  Pike  County,  which  have  been  used  in  the  manufacture 
of  brick,  are  surface  clays  belonging  to  the  Columbia  formation.  The 
other  clay -bearing  formations  are  the  Lafayette  and  the  Grand  Gulf. 

Summit. — The  plant  of  the  Summit  Brick  Manufacturing  Com- 
pany was  established  in  1906.  The  clay  used  is  a yellow,  surface  clay. 
It  is  brought  from  the  pit  by  the  aid  of  cable  cars  elevated  by  drum 
and  hoist.  The  clay  is  pulverized  by  a granulator  and  a disintegrator. 
It  is  then  tempered  in  a pug-mill  and  molded  in  a soft-mud  machine, 
operated  by  steam-power.  The  bricks  are  dried  on  pallets  in  covered 
racks  and  are  burned  in  clamp-kilns. 

McComb  City. — The  White  and  Mey  Brick  Manufacturing  Com- 
pany established  a plant  at  McComb  City  in  1897.  A yellowish -gray, 
surface  clay  is  used,  which  is  transported  to  the  plant  by  cars  propelled 
by  steam  power.  The  clay  is  pulverized  in  a granulator  and  a disin- 
tegrator. It  is  tempered  by  passing  it  through  two  pug-mills.  The 
bricks  are  molded  in  a soft-mud,  steam-power  machine.  They  are  dried 
in  shed-driers  and  burned  in  clamp-kilns  of  rectangular  shape. 


CLAYS  OF  MISSISSIPPI. 


58 


Fernwood. — The  Fernwood  Lumber  Company  began  the  manu- 
facture of  brick  in  1890.  The  material  used  is  a surface  clay  obtained 
from  a small  creek  valley.  It  is  probably  of  Columbia  age.  The  clay 
is  excavated  by  means  of  a steam  shovel  and  hauled  on  small  cars  pro- 
pelled by  steam  power.  It  is  pulverized  by  the  use  of  a disintegrator 
and  a granulator.  It  is  tempered  by  passing  through  two  pug-mills, 
and  is  molded  in  a soft-mud,  steam-power  machine.  The  bricks  are 
placed  on  pallets  and  dried  in  covered  racks.  They  are  burned  in  large, 
rectangular,  clamp-kilns. 

Osyka. — The  Neff  and  Owen  Brick  Company  of  Osyka  uses  a 
yellow  surface  clay  in  the  manufacture  of  brick.  The  clay  is  tem- 
pered in  a ring-pit  and  molded  by  hand.  The  bricks  are  burned  in  rec- 
tangular and  bee-hive  up-draft  kilns.  The  plant  was  established  in 
1892. 

In  1897  Mr.  S.  R.  Ferrell  established  a brick  plant  at  Osyka.  A 
surface  clay  is  employed  in  the  manufacture  of  brick  by  the  soft-mud 
process.  The  clay  is  tempered  in  a ring-pit  and  molded  by  hand. 
The  bricks  are  dried  in  sheds  and  burned  in  up-draft  kilns  of  the  bee- 
hive type. 

Mr.  J.  C.  Wilson  began  the  manufacture  of  brick  at  Osyka  in  1899. 
The  method  of  treating  the  clay  is  the  same  as  in  the  other  two  plants. 

Magnolia. — In  1892  S.  Cohn  and  Sons  began  the  manufacture  of 
brick  at  Magnolia.  The  bricks  are  manufactured  by  the  soft-mud 
process.  The  clay  is  tempered  in  a ring-pit  and  molded  by  hand. 
The  bricks  are  burned  in  rectangular,  up-draft  kilns. 

SIMPSON  COUNTY. 

GEOLOGY. 

The  bed-rock  of  Simpson  County  belongs  to  the  Grand  Gulf  for- 
mation. The  mantle-rock  consists  of  Lafayette  sands  and  gravels, 
Columbia  loam  and  residual  material  from  the  older  rocks. 

CLAYS  AND  CLAY  INDUSTRY. 

The  clays  which  may  be  utilized  in  the  manufacture  of  brick  in 
Simpson  County  belong  to  the  mantle-rock  and  to  the  residual  ma- 
terials from  the  bed-rock.  The  Grand  Gulf  contains  thick  beds  of 
clay,  but  these  are  not  always  suitable  for  the  manufacture  of  brick 
until  they  have  been  properly  weathered. 


Mississippi  Geological  Survey. 


Plate  XVI. 


Bull.  No.  4. 


A GRAND  GULF  IN  CREEK-BANK  AT  GOLDEN’S  WATER  MILL,  TAYLORSVILLE. 


B.  STONINGTON  BRICK  MANUFACTURING  PLANT,  STONINGTON. 


CLAYS  OF  MISSISSIPPI. 


59 


SMITH  COUNTY. 

GEOLOGY. 

The  northeastern  part  of  Smith  County  is  underlain  by  Jackson 
sands,  clays  and  marls.  The  bed-rock  of  the  central  portion  of  the 
county  is  composed  of  Vicksburg  limestone ; the  southern  portion  of  the 
county  is  underlain  by  Grand  Gulf  strata.  The  bed-rock  is  mantled 
by  deposits  of  Lafayette  and  Columbia  and  the  residual  materials  of 
the  bed-rock  formations.  In  some  localities  the  Lafayette  has  a white, 
chalk-like  clay  at  the  base.  On  Dr.  Weatherby’s  farm,  north  of  Tay- 
lorsville, the  white  clay  is  said  to  have  a thickness  of  sixteen  feet.  On 
Deer  Creek,  at  Taylorsville,  layers  of  white  sandstone  of  Grand  Gulf 
age  are  overlain  by  variegated  clays  of  Lafayette,  over  which  is  a layer 
of  yellow  sand  or  sandy  loam  (Columbia).  The  undrained  areas  of  the 
Columbia  contain  a gray  clay,  with  iron  concretions  called  “buckshot.” 


CLAYS  AND  CLAY  INDUSTRY. 


The  clay  industry  of  Smith  County  has  been  but  little  developed. 
The  clay-bearing  formations  are  the  Lafayette,  the  Grand  Gulf,  the 
Jackson  and  the  Columbia. 

Taylorsville . — Mr.  G.  Bustin  at  one  time  operated  a brick  plant  at 
Taylorsville.  The  bricks  were  molded  by  the  stiff -mud  process.  The 
material  used  was  a mixture  of  yellow,  surface  clay,  and  a plastic  clay 
from  the  Lafayette.  The  latter  was  taken  from  a pit  at  a depth  of 
twenty  feet  below  the  surface.  After  an  accident  caused  by  the  cav- 
ing of  the  walls  of  the  pit  the  plant  was  abandoned. 

In  1906  Mr.  M.  S.  Golden  burned  a kiln  of  soft-mud  brick  on  his 
farm  on  Deer  Creek.  The  following  geological  section  is  exposed  near 
the  pit: 


Section  on  Deer  Creek,  Golden's  Mill. 

4.  Soil,  sandy 

3.  Loam,  sandy  (Columbia) 

2.  Clay,  variegated  and  stratified 

1.  Sandstone,  white 


Feet. 
1 to  2 
5 
5 
12 


The  clay  from  No.  2 was  used  in  the  manufacture  of  brick.  It  is 
deficient  in  bonding  material  on  account  of  too  much  sand.  A more 
plastic  clay  should  be  added  to  this  in  order  to  make  a good  brick. 

The  white  Lafayette  clay  from  the  Weatherby  farm,  referred  to 
above,  has  been  used  in  the  manufacture  of  brick  and  tile.  Two 


60 


CLAYS  OF  MISSISSIPPI. 


chimneys  of  a store  building  in  Taylorsville  were  built  of  white  bricks 
from  that  place.  The  bricks  are  said  to  be  capable  of  withstanding  a 
very  high  temperature.  The  composition  of  a sample  of  the  clay  is  as 
follows: 


TABLE  No.  33. 

ANALYSIS  OF  WHITE,  LAFAYETTE  CLAY  FROM  NEAR  TAYLORSVILLE. 

No.  74  O.  S. 


Moisture  (H2O) 1.28 

Volatile  matter  (CO2,  etc.) 6.60 

Silicon  dioxide  (S1O2) 71.29 

Aluminum  oxide  (A^O 3) 16.78 

Iron  oxide  (Fe20s) 3.30 

Calcium  oxide  (CaO) 0.14 

Magnesium  oxide  (MgO) 0.41 

Sulphur  trioxide  (SO3) Trace. 


Total 99.80- 


RATIONAL  ANALYSIS. 


Clay  substance .*....  42.52 

Free  silica 45.55 

Fluxing  impurities 3-85 


This  clay  requires  17  per  cent  of  water  to  render  it  plastic.  The 
shrinkage  in  air-drying  is  5 per  cent.  Its  specific  gravity  is  2.23  per 
cent.  The  unburned  briquets  have  an  average  tensile  strength  of 
100  pounds  per  square  inch. 

Burns. Mr.  T.  B.  Winstead  of  Burns  uses  a surface  clay  in  the  man- 
ufacture of  brick.  He  uses  the  soft-mud  process  of  molding  and  burns 
in  scove  kilns. 


WAYNE  COUNTY. 

GEOLOGY. 

The  sub-strata  of  the  northeastern  part  of  Wayne  County  belong  to 
the  Jackson  group.  The  area  of  the  Jackson  out-crop  is  marked  by 
sticky  lime  soils  and  patches  of  bald  prairie.  The  central  part  of  the 
county  is  underlain  by  the  Vicksburg  limestone.  The  solvent  action 
of  ground  water  has  produced  a number  of  small  caves  in  the  rocks  of 
this  group.  The  largest  of  these  is  King’s  Cave,  about  seven  miles 
northwest  of  Waynesboro,  on  Mr.  Pitt’s  farm. 

The  Grand  Gulf  strata  form  the  sub-surface  of  the  southern  portion 
of  the  county.  The  rocks  of  this  group  consist  of  white  and  red  sands 
and  bluish  clays  containing  lignitized  remains  of  trees. 

The  red  sands  and  the  variegated  clays  of  the  Lafayette  form  the 
principal  mantle-rocks  of  the  county.  Along  the  divide  between  the 


CLAYS  OF  MISSISSIPPI. 


61 


Chickasawhay  River  and  Buckatuna  Creek  the  hills  are  capped  with 
Lafayette  sands  and  ironstones.  The  Columbia  loam  is  also  present, 
mantling  the  older  formations  in  most  places.  Two  types  are  recog- 
nizable, gray  and  brown. 

The  analyses  of  two  samples  of  Jackson  marl,  one  from  Chicka- 
sawhay River  at  Davis  Ferry  and  the  other  from  Limestone  Creek  are 
here  given. 


TABLE  No.  34. 


ANALYSES  OF  JACKSON  MARLS,  FROM  WAYNE  COUNTY. 


Insoluble  matter 

Alumina 

Lime 

Potash 

Soda 

Magnesia 

Brown  oxide  manganese . . 

Peroxide  of  iron 

Phosphoric  acid 

Sulphuric  acid 

Carbonic  acid 

Organic  matter  and  water. 
Total 


No.  1. 

No.  2. 

55 . 185 

56.787 

1.956 

.855 

19.508 

20.793 

.621 

.369 

.129 

.178 

.950 

.833 

.192 

.032 

1.194 

1.928 

.080 

.121 

1.804 

.085 

17.662 

16.273 

00.000 

1.100 

99.666 

99.351 

A sample  of  Vicksburg  marl  from  Lang’s  mill,  in  Wayne  County, 
was  analyzed  with  the  following  results: 

TABLE  No.  35. 

ANALYSIS  OF  VICKSBURG  MARL,  WAYNE  COUNTY. 


Insoluble  matter 23.282 

Alumina 2.726 

Lime 37.633 

Potash 295  . 

Soda 255 

Magnesia 1.188 

Brown  oxide  of  manganese 088 

Peroxide  of  iron 2 . 200 

Phosphoric  acid 119 

Sulphuric  acid 312 

Carbonic  acid 29.500 

Organic  matter  and  water 2,524 


Total 100.122 


CLAYS  AND  CLAY  INDUSTRY. 

The  clay-bearing  formations  of  Wayne  County  are  Jackson,  Grand 
Gulf,  Lafayette  and  Columbia.  The  last  two  named  are  being  utilized 
in  the  manufacture  of  brick.  The  Lafayette  clay  is  usually  a stiff, 
reddish-colored  clay.  The  Columbia  is  the  surface  formation.  It 
is  of  a loamy  nature,  with  a clay  sub -stratum. 


62 


CLAYS  OF  MISSISSIPPI. 


Plate  XVII. 


B.  POWER  PLANT  OF  THE  WAYNESBORO  BRICK  COMPANY,  WAYNESBORO. 

Waynesboro. — The  Waynesboro  Brick  and  Manufacturing  Company 
uses  a mixture  of  Lafayette  clay  and  Columbia  loam  in  the  manu- 
facture of  brick.  The  plant  was  established  in  1906  with  Mr.  H.  H. 
Moore  as  superintendent.  The  stratigraphy  of  the  clay-pit  is  as  follows: 

Section  of  Waynesboro  Clay-Pit. 


Feet. 

3.  Soil,  about 1 

2.  Columbia  loam 2 to  3 

1.  Lafayette  clay,  about 12 


The  total  thickness  of  No.  1 is  not  revealed  in  the  pit,  but  is  said  to 
be  twelve  feet  thick  in  the  wTell  located  in  the  yard.  The  well  is 
eighteen  feet  deep,  with  sixteen  feet  of  clay  and  two  feet  of  sand.  The 
sixteen-foot  bed  of  clay  is  prepared  by  crushing  in  a granulator  and 
disintegrator  and  tempering  in  a pug-mill.  It  is  then  molded  in  a 
stiff -mud  machine  of  the  horizontal,  auger-type,  and  the  bricks  cut 
with  an  end-cut  machine.  The  bricks  are  stacked  in  rows  under  cov- 
dered  racks  and  dried.  They  are  then  burned  in  up-draft,  clamp-kilns. 

Analyses  of  Lafayette  clay  and  Columbia  clay  used  in  these  bricks 
are  given  below.  No.  1 is  from  the  Lafayette  and  No.  2 is  from  the 
Columbia : 


CLAYS  OF  MISSISSIPPI. 


63 


TABLE  No.  36. 

ANALYSES  OF  WAYNESBORO  CLAYS. 


Moisture  (H2O) 

Volatile  matter  (CO2,  etc.) 

Silicon  dioxide  (Si02) 

Aluminum  Oxide  (AI2O3) . . 

Iron  oxide  (Fe203) 

Calcium  oxide  (CaO) 

Magnesium  oxide  (MgO) . . 
Sulphur  trioxide  (SO3) 


No.  1.  No.  2. 
1.98  1.53 

5.13  2.37 

75.12  83.33 

10.75  8.00 

4.57  3.50 

0.32  0.67 

0.03  0.09 

1.70  0.25 


Total 


99.60  99.94 


RATIONAL  ANALYSES. 


Clay  substance 27.19 

Free  silica 58.68 

Fluxing  impurities 6.62 


20.24 

71.29 

4.51 


WILKINSON  COUNTY, 

GEOLOGY, 

The  bed-rock  formation  of  Wilkinson  County  is  of  Grand  Gulf  age. 
The  Grand  Gulf  rocks  on  the  higher  lands  of  the  county  are  largely  con- 
cealed by  beds  of  gravel,  sand  and  clay  of  Lafayette  age  and  by  the 
Columbia  loams.  Along  the  bluffs  of  the  Mississippi  River  the  older 
formations  are  mantled  with  a deposit  of  loess.  The  flood-plain  area  of 
the  river  is  covered  with  alluvial  silts  of  recent  age.  The  bluffs  of  the 
Mississippi  and  Buffalo  Bayou  are  composed  of  Grand  Gulf  and 
younger  strata. 

Dr.  Hilgard,  in  his  report  on  the  geology  of  Mississippi,  p.  150,  gives 
the  following  section,  which  represents  the  stratigraphical  condition  of 
these  bluffs: 

Section  at  Loftus  Heights,  Fort  Adams,  Wilkinson  County. 

Feet. 


3.  Yellowish-gray,  calcareous  silt  of  Bluff  formation  (loess) 73 

2.  Orange  sand — yellow,  orange  and  white  sands 87 

1.  Argillaceous  sandstone,  yellowish -gray  in  its  mass,  variegated  with  fur- 
ruginous  spots  and  veins,  and  of  different  degrees  of  hardness,  so  as  to 
weather  into  rough,  jagged  surfaces.  Traceable  to  water’s  edge 170 


No.  3 represents  the  loess;  No.  2 is  Lafayette,  at  least  in  part, 
though  a portion  of  the  stratum  may  belong  to  the  Grand  Gulf ; No.  1 
is  Grand  Gulf. 


CLAYS  AND  CLAY  INDUSTRY. 

The  clays  which  have  thus  far  been  used  in  the  manufacture  of 
brick  in  Wilkinson  County  are  surface  clays  of  the  Columbia  formation. 


64 


CLAYS  OF  MISSISSIPPI. 


Suitable  clays  for  brick  manufacture  may  be  found  also  in  the  La- 
fayette and  in  the  residual  clays  of  the  Grand  Gulf.  Bricks  are  now 
being  manufactured  at  two  points,  Centerville  and  Woodville. 

Centerville. — The  Centerville  Brick  Manufacturing  plant  is  owned 
and  managed  by  Mr.  G.  W.  Haag.  The  plant  was  established  in 
1897.  The  clay  is  prepared  in  a disintegrator  and  molded  in  a stiff - 
mud,  end-cut  machine.  The  bricks  are  stacked  in  sheds  for  drying. 
They  are  then  burned  in  clamp  kilns.  The  clay -bed  has  a thickness  of 
about  ten  feet,  the  upper  six  feet  of  which  is  used  for  making  brick. 
The  bed  of  clay  rests  upon  a layer  of  sand,  the  whole  having  a thickness 
of  fifty-six  feet,  according  to  the  record  of  a nearby  well. 

Woodville. — Mr.  E.  B.  Arthur  established  a plant  for  the  manu- 
facture of  brick  at  Woodville  in  1903.  The  clay  is  tempered  in  a ring- 
pit.  The  bricks  are  molded  by  hand  and  burned  in  clamp  kilns.  The 
clay-pit  exhibits  a layer  of  sandy,  Lafayette  clay,  capped  with  a brown 
loam  (Columbia.)  The  full  section  of  the  clay  is  used  from  top  to 
bottom. 


TABLE  No.  37. 


SPECIFIC  GRAVITY  OF  SOME  MISSISSIPPI  BRICK  CLAYS. 


Locality. 

Agricultural  College,  No.  1 
Agricultural  College,  No.  2 
Agricultural  College,  No.  3 

Aberdeen 

Amory 

New  Albany 

Batesville 

Canton 

Canton 

Clarksdale 

Corinth 

Grenada 

Hampton 

Hernando 

Holly  Springs 

Houlka 

Indianola 

Tchouticabouff  River 

Macon 

Morton 

Newton 

Ocean  Springs 

Pontotoc 

Rienzi 

Ripley 

Vaiden 


Specific  Gravity. 


Formation. 

Raw  Clay. 

Burned  Clay 

.Residual  Selma 

2.18 

2.20 

.Residual  Selma 

2.21 

2.22 

.Residual  Selma 

2.13 

2.45 

Lafayette . 

2.12 

2.30 

Lafayette 

2.20 

2.20 

Lafayette 

2.15 

2.36 

Columbia 

2.10 

2.40 

Jackson 

1.91 

2.30 

Lafayette 

2.27 

2,27 

, Alluvium 

1.93 

2.11 

Residual  Selma 

2.20 

2.22 

Columbia 

2.04 

2.31 

Alluvium 

1.93 

2.11 

Columbia 

2.20 

2.28 

Columbia 

2.17 

2.50 

Columbia 

2.21 

2.33 

Alluvium 

1.90 

2.15 

Columbia 

1.83 

2.28 

Porter’s  Creek 

2.28 

2.31 

Jackson 

2.12 

2.22 

Lafayette. . . : 

2.00 

2.31 

Columbia 

1.92 

2.11 

Lafayette 

2.33 

2.25 

Columbia 

2.11 

2.40 

Columbia 

1.17 

2.23 

Claiborne 

1.45 

2.00 

DIRECTORY  OF  MISSISSIPPI  BRICK  MANUFACTURERS, 


1. 

2. 

3. 

4. 

5. 

6. 

7. 

8. 
9. 

10. 

11. 

12. 

13. 

14. 

15. 

16. 

17. 

18. 

19. 

20. 
21. 
22. 

23. 

24. 

25. 

26. 

27. 

28. 

29. 

30. 

31. 

32. 

33. 

34. 

35. 

36. 

37. 

38. 

39. 

40. 

41. 

42. 

43. 

44. 

45. 

46. 

47. 

48. 

49. 

50. 

51. 

52. 

53. 


Name  of  Firm. 


Locality.  County. 


Austin  Brick  Mfg.  Co Pontotoc 

Bacon  Brick  Mfg.  Co Greenwood. . . . 

Baldwyn  Brick  and  Tile  Co Baldwyn 

Beck  Brick  Mfg.  Co . .Vicksburg 

Bledsoe  Brick  and  Tile  Co Grenada 

Bonita  Brick  and  Tile  Co Meridian 

Boone ville  Brick  and  Tile  Co Booneville.  . . . 

Brown  Brick  Mfg.  Co Crenshaw 

Brookhaven  Pressed  Brick  Co Brookhaven. . . 

Blumer  Brick  Mfg.  Co Moss  Point...  . 

Buchanan  Brick  Co Sardis 

Bushman  and  McGinnis  Brick  Co Hattiesburg.. . 

Butler  Brick  Mfg.  Co New  Albany... 

Camp  Brick  Mfg.  Co Amory 

Carl  Brick  Mfg.  Co Grenada 

Centerville  Brick  Co Centerville. . . . 

Charleston  Improvement  and  Investment  Co. Charleston. . . . 

Clarksdale  Brick  and  Tile  Co Clarksdale.  . . . 

Cline  Brick  Mfg.  Co Macon 

Coffeeville  Brick  Co Coffeeville 

Columbus  Brick  Mfg.  Co Columbus 

Concord  Brick  Mfg.  Co. Natchez 

Corinth  Brick  Mfg.  Co Corinth 

Crymes  Brick  Mfg.  Co Hattiesburg..  . 

Edwards  Brick  Mfg.  Co Edwards 

Erby  Bros.  Brick  Co Holly  Springs. 

Femwood  Lumber  Co Fernwood 

Ferrell  Brick  Mfg.  Co Osyka 

Furtick  Brick  Co Rienzi 

Garbish  Brick  Mfg.  Co Vicksburg 

Greenville  Brick  Mfg.  Co Greenville 

Gregory  Brick  Mfg.  Co Vicksburg 

Gloster  Brick  Mfg.  Co Gloster 

Gulo  Brick  Mfg.  Co Holcomb 

Hancock  Brick  Mfg.  Co Newton 

Hawkins  and  Hodges  Brick  Co Okolona 

Hazlehurst  Brick  Mfg.  Co Hazlehurst. . . . 

Howard  Brick  Mfg.  Co Starkville.. . . . 

Imperial  Brick  Company Biloxi 

Indianola  Brick  and  Tile  Co Indianola 

Jesty  Brick  and  Lumber  Co Winona 

Langley  Bros.  Brick  Co Louisville 

Laurel  Brick  and  Tile  Co Laurel 

Leakesville  Brick  Co Leakesville 

Liberty  Brick  Mfg.  Co Liberty 

Landon  Brick  and  Tile  Co Landon 

Love  Wagon  Co. Durant 

Lowery  and  Berry  Brick  Co Blue  Mountain 

Maben  Brick  Mfg.  Co Maben 

Magnolia  Brick  Mfg.  Co Magnolia 

Mead  ville  Brick  Mfg.  Co Mead  ville 

Montgomery  Brick  Mfg.  Co Senatobia 

Montgomery  Land  and  Brick  Co Yazoo  City 


. Pontotoc. 
Leflore. 

.Lee. 

.Warren. 

Grenada. 

. Lauderdale. 
.Prentiss. 

. Panola. 

. Lincoln. 
.Jackson. 
Panola. 

. Forrest. 

. Union. 
.Monroe. 

. Grenada. 

. Wilkinson. 
.Tallahatchie. 

. Coahoma. 

. Noxubee. 
.Yalobusha. 

. Lowndes. 

. Adams. 

. Alcorn. 

. Forrest. 
.Warren. 
.Marshall. 
.Pike. 

. Pike. 

. Alcorn. 

.Warren. 

.Washington. 

.Warren. 

.Amite. 

. Grenada. 
.Newton. 
.Chickasaw. 

. Copiah. 

. Oktibbeha. 
.Harrison. 

. Sunflower. 

. Montgomery. 

. Winston. 

.Jones. 

Greene. 

.Amite. 

.Harrison. 

.Holmes. 

.Tippah. 

. Oktibbeha. 

. Pike. 

.Franklin. 

.Tate. 

.Yazoo. 


66 


CLAYS  OF  MISSISSIPPI. 


54. 

55. 

56. 

57. 

58. 

59. 

60. 
61. 
62. 

63. 

64. 

65. 

66. 

67. 

68. 

69. 

70. 

71. 

72. 

73. 

74. 

75. 
70. 

77. 

78. 

79. 

80. 
81. 
82. 

83. 

84. 

85. 

86. 

87. 

88. 

89. 

90. 

91. 

92. 

93. 

94. 

95. 

96. 

97. 

98. 

99. 
100. 


DIRECTORY  OF  MISSISSIPPI  BRICK  MANUFACTURERS— Continued. 


Name  of  Firm. 


Locality.  County. 


Mt.  Olive  Brick  Mfg.  Co Mt.  Olive. 

Natchez  Brick  Mfg.  Co Natchez 

Nettleton  Brick  Mfg.  Co Nettleton 

Neff  and  Owen  Brick  Mfg.  Co Osyka 

New  Houlka  Brick  Mfg.  Co New  Houlka.  . . 

Norfield  Brick  Mfg.  Co Norfield 

Norris  Brick  Mfg.  Co Water  Valley.. 

Oktibbee  Brick  Mfg.  Co Meridian 

Oxford  Brick  and  Tile  Co College  Hill. . . . 

Orange  Groove  Brick  Co Orange  Groove . 

Pope  Brick  Mfg.  Co Houston 

Port  Gibson  Mfg.  Co Port  Gibson. . . . 

Quitman  Brick  Mfg.  Co Quitman 

Rheinhart  Brick  and  Tile  Co Clarksdale 

Ripley  Brick  Mfg.  Co Ripley 

Riverside  Brick  Mfg.  Co Hattiesburg.. . . 

Robirsonville  Brick  and  Tile  Co Robinson ville . . 

Ruffin  Brick  Co Columbia 

Saltillo  Brick  Mfg.  Co Saltillo 

Seavey  and  Sons  Brick  Mfg.  Co Brookhaven. . . . 

Smith  Brick  Mfg.  Co Canton 

Storer  and  Miller  Brick  Co Louisville 

Storer  and  Miller  Brick  Co Kosciusko 

Stonington  Brick  Mfg.  Co Stonington 

Success  Brick  and  Tile  Co.  Greenwood 

Summit  Brick  Mfg.  Co Summit 

Sunflower  Brick  Mfg.  Co Indianola 

Tanner  Brick  Mfg.  Co Vicksburg 

Taylor  and  Thomas  Brick  Mfg.  Co Crystal  Springs. 

Taylor  Brick  Mfg.  Co Jackson 

Thrasher  Brick  Mfg.  Co Thrasher 

Thornton  Brick  Mfg.  Co Vicksburg 

Tubbs  Brick  Mfg.  Co Amory 

Union  County  Brick  Co New  Albany 

Utica  Brick  Mfg.  Co Utica 

Vaiden  Brick  and  Tile  Co Vaiden 

Valley  Brick  and  Tile  Co Lakeview 

Vardaman  Brick  Co Vardaman 

Verona  Brick  Mfg.  Co Verona 

Waynesboro  Brick  Mfg.  Co.  . Waynesboro 

Weems  Brick  Co Sun 

Welch-Trotter  Brick  Co West  Point 

West  Point  Brick  Mfg.  Co West  Point 

White  and  Mey  Brick  Co McComb  City... 

Wilson  Brick  Mfg.  Co Osyka 

Winstead  Brick  Co Bums 

Woodville  Brick  Mfg.  Co Woodville 


. Covington. 

. Adams. 
.Lee. 

.Pike. 

. Chickasaw. 

. Lincoln. 
.Yalobusha. 

. Lauderdale. 
. Lafayette. 
.Jackson. 

. Chickasaw. 

. Claiborne. 
.Clarke. 

. Coahoma. 
.Tippah. 

. Forrest. 
.Tunica. 
.Marion. 
.Lee. 

. Lincoln. 

. Madison. 
.Winston. 

. Attala. 

. Jefferson. 
Leflore. 
Pike. 

. Sunflower. 

. Warren. 

. Copiah. 
Hinds. 

. Prentiss 
.Warrer. 
Monro  j 
Union 
Hind  . 
Carroll. 
DeSoto. 
Calhoun. 
Lee. 

Wayne. 

Scott. 

Clay. 

Clay. 

Pike. 

Pike. 

Smith. 

Wilkinson. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY, 


Bain,  H.  F. — Clay  Ballast,  Mining  Industry,  Vol.  VII,  1898. 

Beyer,  Williams  and  Weems — Clays  of  Iowa,  Iowa  Geological  Survey,  Vol. 
XIV,  1903. 

Blatchley,  W.  S. — Clay  and  Clay  Industry,  Indiana  Geological  and  Natural  Re- 
sources, 1896,  1898. 

Bourry,  E. — Treatise  on  Ceramics,' 1901. 

Branner,  J.  C. — Bibliography  of  Clays  and  the  Ceramic  Arts,  U.  S.  G.  S.  1896. 

Buckley,  E.  R. — Clays  and  Clay  Industry  of  Wisconsin,  1901. 

Chamberlin,  T.  C. — Wisconsin  Clays,  Geology  of  Wisconsin,  Final  Report,  Vol. 
I,  1883. 

Cook,  G.  H. — Clays  of  New  Jersey,  Geological  Survey  New  Jersey,  1878. 

Crary,  J.  W.,  Sr. — Brickmaking  and  Brickbuming  Industry,  1890. 

Crider,  A.  F. — Mineral  Resources  of  Mississippi,  U.  S.  G.  S.,  Bui.  283,  1906. 

Davis,  C.  T. — Manufacture  of  Brick,  Tile  and  Terra  Cotta,  etc.,  Phila.,  1889. 

Eckel,  E.  C. — Clays  of  Northwest  Mississippi,  U.  S.  G.  S.,  Bui.  213,  1903. 

Harris,  G.  F. — Science  of  Brickmaking,  London,  1897. 

Hilgard,  E.  A. — Geology  and  Agriculture  of  Mississippi,  1860. 

Hill,  R.  T. — Clay  Materials  of  the  United  States,  Mineral  Resources,  U.  S.  G.  S., 
1893. 

Holmes,  J.  A. — Clays  and  Kaolin  of  North  Carolina,  Trans.  Am.  Inst.  Min.  Eng., 
1896. 

Hopkins,  T.  C. — Clays  and  Clay  Industry  of  Pennsylvania,  Ann.  Rept.  State 
Col.,  1898. 

Ladd,  Geo.  E. — Clays  of  Georgia,  Georgia  Geological  Survey  Report,  1898. 

Logan,  W.  N. — Clays  of  Oktibbeha  County,  Miss.,  Bui.  1,  Geology  of  Oktibbeha 
County,  1904. 

Preliminary  Report  on  Some  Clays  of  Mississippi,  Bui.  3,  1905. 

Brick  Clays  of  Northern  Mississippi,  Bui.  2,  Mississippi  Geolog- 
ical Survey.  1907. 

Orton,  E.,  Jr. — Clay  Working  Industries  of  Ohio,  Ohio  Geological  Survey,  1893. 

Ries,  Heinrich— Clays  of  the  Hudson  River  Valley,  Anu.  Rept.  N.  Y.  Geological 
Survey,  1890. 

Report  on  Clays  of  Maryland,  Geological  Survey,  Vol.  IV,  1902. 

Clay  Deposits  and  Clay  Industries  of  North  Carolina,  Geological 

Survey,  1897. 

Clays  of  Alabama,  Geological  Survey  Report,  1900. 

Clay  Industries  of  New  York  State,  Mus.  Bui.,  1900. 

Clays  and  Shales  of  Michigan,  Geological  Survey,  1903. 

Clays  of  New  Jersey,  Geological  Survey  Report,  1904. 

Economic  Geology  of  the  United  States,  1905. 

: Clay,  Macmillan  Company,  New  York,  1906. 

Wheeler,  H.  A. — Clays  of  Missouri,  Missouri  Geological  Survey,  Vol.  XI,  1896. 


In  the  list  given  above  are  some  of  the  more  important  works  on  the 
subject  of  clay.  Some  of  those  named  are  not  given  because  of  their 
importance  as  reference  works  on  the  subject  of  clay,  but  because  they 
have  a bearing  upon  the  subject  of  Mississippi  geology  or  clays.  No 
attempt  has  been  made  to  give  a complete  bibliography  or  to  make 
complete  the  list  of  writings  of  any  one  author.  Nearly  all  the  articles 
on  clay  have  been  published  in  the  reports  of  State  geological  surveys 
and  are  accessible  to  the  clay-worker. 


ACKNOWLEDGMENTS, 


I desire  to  express  my  thanks  to  the  men  engaged  in  the  manu- 
facture of  brick  within  the  territory  covered  by  this  report  for  the  gen- 
erous and  cordial  way  in  which  they  have  responded  to  calls  for  infor- 
mation necessary  for  the  completion  of  this  report.  I am  under  very 
great  obligations  to  Mr.  A.  F.  Crider x Director  of  the  Survey,  for 
samples  of  clays,  for  reading  the  manuscript  and  for  other  courtesies 
extended. 

The  chemical  work  forming  a very  important  part  of  the  report  was 
done  under  the  direction  of  Dr.  W.  F.  Hand,  State  Chemist,  and  to  him 
and  his  corps  of  assistants  all  credit  is  due.  A few  chemical  analyses 
derived  from  other  sources  are  credited  at  their  proper  places. 

To  other  citizens  of  the  State  who  have  kindly  assisted  me  while 
engaged  in  the  field  work,  I desire  to  express  my  full  appreciation  of 
their  valued  services. 


INDEX, 


A PA 

Abolo  Chitto,  Grand  Gulf  clays  on . 

Acknowledgments 

Adams  County,  geology  of 

clays  and  clay  industry  of 

Alluvial  clays,  recent,  nature  of.  . 

composition  of 

Alluvium,  recent 

Amite  County,  geology  of 

clays  and  clay  industry  of 

Analyses  of  clays 19,  27, 

31,33,35,36,37,38,41,42, 
44,45,46,48,  50,51,55,60, 

Analysis  of  limestone 

Analysis  of  loess 

Analyses  of  marls 29, 

Arthur,  E.  B.,  brick  plant  of 

B 

Barnett,  analysis  of  clay  from 

Bay  St.  Louis,  clay  industry  at.  . 

section  of  clay-pit  at 

Beaumont,  Grand  Gulf  clays  at.  . . 

Bibliography 

Biloxi,  brick  industry  at 

analyses  of  clays  from 41, 

tests  of  clays  from 

Blumer,  A.,  brick  plant  of 

“Boat  Landing,”  section  at 

Brick  clays  and  clay  industry  of 
southern  Mississippi  by  coun- 
ties   

Brookhaven , brick  industry  at ...  . 
views  of  plant  and  bricks  made 

at 

Brookhaven  Pressed  Brick  Co 

Brown,  Calvin  S.,  cited 

Bulletin  No.  2,  cited 

Bulletin  No.  3,  cited 

Burns,  brick  plant  at 

Bustin,  G.,  brick  plant  of 

C 

Caledonia,  Grand  Gulf  clays  at 

Camp-H inton  Lumber  Co.,  deep 
well  log  at 


PAGE 


Cassidys  Bluff,  analysis  of  clay 

from 37 

Centerville,  clay  industry  at 64 

Centerville  Brick  Plant 64 

Chamberlin,  T.  C.,  cited 20 

Claiborne  County,  geology  of 26 

clays  and  clay  industry  of 27 

Claiborne  formation,  description  of  13 

Clarke  County,  geology  of 28 

clays  and  clay  industry  of 30 

analyses  of  clays,  marls  and 

limestone  from 29,  30,  31 

Cohn,  S.  and  Sons,  brick  plant  of . . 58 
Columbia,  brick  industry  near.  ...  55 
Columbia  formation,  description  of  15 

Columbia  clays,  nature  of 18 

composition  of 18 

Concord  Brick  Co 24 

Copiah  County,  geology  of 31 

clays  and  clay  industry  of 32 

Covington  County,  geology  of 32 

clays  and  clay  industry  of 33 

Crider,  letter  of  transmittal  by, 

work  of 3,  68 

Crider  and  Johnson,  cited 22 

Crymes,  T.  P.,  brick  plant  of 34 

view  of  brick  plant  of 34 

Crystal  Springs,  brick  industry  at . 32 
well  log  at 32 


D 


Deer  Creek,  white  sandstone  on. . . 59 

geological  section  on 59 

Directory  of  Mississippi  brick  man- 
ufacturers   65 


E 

Edmonson,  C.  S.,  brick  plant  of.  . 30 
Ellisville,  well  log  at,  stratigraphy 

at 49,  50 

analyses  of  clays  from 50,  51 

view  of  Lafayette  and  Grand 
Gulf  at 50 


GE 

56 

68 

20 

24 

19 

19 

15 

25 

25 

29 

43 

63 

30 

25 

61 

64 

29 

39 

39 

56 

67 

41 

42 

42 

45 

21 

20 

54 

54 

54 

22 

3 

22 

60 

59 

57 

52 


70 


INDEX. 


F PA 

Fayette,  stratigraphy  at 

Fern  wood,  brick  industry  at 

Fernwood  Lumber  Co.,  brick  plant 

of 

Ferrell,  S.  R.,  brick  plant  of 

Forrest  County,  geology  of 

clays  and  clay  industry  of 

Fort  Adams,  geological  section  at. 

Franklin  County,  geology  of 

clays  and  clay  industry  of 


G 

Garlands  Creek,  analysis  of  marl 

from 

Geological  corps 

Geological  Commission 

Gloster,  brick  industry  at 

Golden,  M.  S.,  brick  plant  of 

view  of  water  mill  of 

Grand  Gulf,  geological  section  at. 
Grand  Gulf  clays,  nature  of,  com- 
position of 16, 

Grand  Gulf  formation,  description 

of 

Grand  Gulf  at  Natchez,  view  of.  . 

“Gravel  Point,”  section  at 

Greene  County,  geology  of 

clays  and  clay  industry  of 


H 

Hagg,  G.  W.,  brick  plant  of 

Hancock  County,  geology  of 

clays  and  clay  industry  of 

Hand,  W.  F.,  work  of 

Harrison  County,  geology  of 

clays  and  clay  industry  of 

Phonchartrain  clays  in 

Hattiesburg,  brick  industry  at. . . . 

artesian  well  log  at 

analyses  of  clays  from 

Hazlehurst,  brick  industry  at 

Hazlehurst  Brick  Co 

Hilgard,  E.  W.,  cited 26, 

Homochitto  River 


I PAGE 

Illustrations,  list  of 9 

Imperial  Brick  Co 41 

clay-pit  of 41 

analyses  of  clays  used  at  plant 

of 41 

tests  of  clays  used  at  plant  of . . 42 
views  of  plant  and  clay-pit  of . . 42 

I Introduction 13 

. . ' ' 

J 


1 Jackson  clays,  description  of 16 

composition  of . . .* 16 

Jackson  County,  geology  of 44 

clays  and  clay  industry  of 45 

Jackson  formation,  description  of . 14 

Jasper  County,  geology  of 46 

clays  and  clay  industry  of 46 

Jefferson  County,  geology  of 47 

clays  and  clay  industry  of 47 

Jefferson  Davis  County,  geology  of  48 

clays  and  clay  industry  of 49 

Jones  County,  geology  of 49 

clays  and  clay  industry  of 50 


Lacy,  brick  industry  at 56 

Lafayette  clays,  description  of . . . . 17 

composition  of 17 

Lafayette  formation , description  of  15 

Lamar  County,  geology  of 52 

clays  and  clay  industry  of 52 

Landon,  brick  industry  at 40 

Landon  Brick  and  Tile  Co 40 

section  of  clay-pit  of 40 

analyses  of  clays  from 41 

views  of  clay-pit  and  plant  of . . 40 
Langs  Mill,  analysis  of  marl  from . . 61 

Laurel,  brick  industry  at 51 

analysis  of  clay  from 51 

Laurel  Brick  and  Tile  Co 51 

view  of  plant  of 50 

Lawrence  County,  geology  of 53 

clays  and  clay  industry  of 53 

Leakesville,  brick  industry  at ...  . 38 
log  of  public  well  at 37 


GE 

47 

58 

58 

58 

34 

34 

63 

36 

37 

29 

2 

2 

26 

59 

60 

26 

17 

14 

20 

20 

37 

38 

64 

39 

39 

68 

40 

40 

40 

34 

34 

35 

32 

32 

63 

36 


INDEX. 


71 


PAGE 


Leakesville — Continued. 

section  of  clay-pit  at 38 

analyses  of  clays  from 38 

Leakesville  Brick  Co 38 

view  of  clay-pit  of 39 

Letter  of  transmittal 3 

Liberty,  brick  industry  at 25 

Liberty  Brick  Co 25 

Lincoln  County,  geology  of 53 

clays  and  clay  industry  of 54 

Lisbon  formation,  description  of.  . 14 

List  of  illustrations 9 

List  of  tables 11 

Loess,  description  of 15 

Loess  bluff  at  Natchez,  view  of . . . . 20 

Loess  clays,  nature  of 18 

composition  of 25 

Loftus  Heights,  section  at 63 

Lumberton,  clay  industry  at 52 

log  of  deep  well  at 52 

Lumberton  Brick  Co 52 

clay-pit  of 52 

view  of  plant  and  clay-pit  of.  . 52 


M 


Magnolia,  brick  industry  at 58 

Marion  County,,  geology  of 55 

clays  and  clay  industry  of 55 

analyses  of  Grand  Gulf  clays 

from 55 

Martin,  geological  section  at 27 

Maxie,  analysis  of  clay  from 36 

Meadville,  brick  industry  at 37 

Meadville  Brick  Co 37 

Mey  and  White  Brick  Co 57 

Mississippi  bluffs,  stratigraphy  of.  23 

Moon,  W.  T.,  brick  plant  of 39 

Moore,  H.  H.,  brick  plant  of 62 

Moss  Point,  brick  industry  at 45 

views  of  brick  plant  at 44 

Mount  Olive,  brick  industry  at. . . . 33 

section  of  clay-pit  at 33 

analysis  of  clay  from 33 

Mount  Olive  Brick  Co 33 

views  of  plant  of 32 

McComb  City,  brick  industry  at.  . 57 


N PA  GE 

Natchez,  brick  industry  at 24 

section  at  “Gravel  Point’’  north 

of 20 

section  at  “Boat  Landing’’ 

south  of 21 

stratified  clays  at 22 

thickness  of  sands  and  gravel 

beds  at 22 

views  at 20,  22,  24 

Natchez  Brick  Co 24 

Neff  and  Owen  Brick  Co 58 

Norfield,  brick  industry  at 54 

Norfield  Brick  Co 54 


O 


Ocean  Springs,  analysis  of  clay 

from 46 

Orange  Grove,  brick  industry  at.. . 45 

analysis  of  clay  from . 45 

Orange  Grove  Brick  and  Tile  Co.  . 45 

Oskya,  brick  industry  at 58 

view  of  plant  at 58 


P 

Pearl  River  County,  geology  of . . . 36 

clays  and  clay  industry  of 56 

Peoria,  brick  industry  at 26 

Perry  County,  geology  of 55 

clays  and  clay  industry  of 56 

Pike  County,  geology  of 57 

clays  and  clay  industry  of 57 

Port  Gibson,  brick  industry  at. . . . 27 
Port  Gibson  Brick  and  Tile  Co. . . . 27 
Port  Hudson  formation,  nature  of . 15 


O 


Quitman,  clay  industry  at 30 

geological  section  at 30 

artesian  well  log  at 30 

analyses  of  clays  from 31 


72 


INDEX. 


R PA 

Recent  alluvial  clays,  nature  of . . . 

composition  of 

Recent  alluvium 

Riverside  Brick  Co 

analyses  of  clays  used  by 

S 

Saucier,  composition  of  clay 

from 42, 

dilution  of  clay  from 

tests  of  clay  from 

Searcy,  R.  J.,  brick  plant  of 

Seavy,  A.  and  Sons,  brick  plant  of . 
Shubuta  Ferry,  analysis  of  marl 

from 

Silver  Creek,  view  of  brick  building 

at 

Simpson  County,  geology  of 

clays  and  clay  industry  of 

Smith  County,  geology  of 

clays  and  clay  industry  of 

Smiths  Spring,  analysis  of  marl 

from 

Specific  gravity  of  Mississippi  clays 

Stonington,  brick  industry  at 

section  of  clay-pit  at 

analysis  of  white  clay  from .... 

views  at 46, 

Stonington  Brick  Co 

Summit,  brick  industry  at 

Summit  Brick  Co 

view  of  power  plant  of 

T 

Tallahatta  buhrstone,  nature  of . . . 
Taylor-Thomas  Brick  Co 


PAGE 


Taylorsville,  brick  industry  at.  . . . 59 
analysis  of  white  clay  from  near  60 
Tchouticabouff  River,  analysis  of 
clay  from 44 

Ten  Mile,  analysis  of  clay  from 43 

. 


U 

Undifferentiated  Claiborne,  nature 
of 14 

V 

Vicksburg  formation,  nature  of . . . . 14 
W 


Water  Supply  and  Irrigation  Paper 

■Sp.  159,  cited 22 

Wayne  County,  geology  of 60 

clays  and  clay  industry  of 61 

analyses  of  Jackson  marls  from  61 
analysis  of  Vicksburg  marl  from  61 
Waynesboro,  brick  industry  at ...  . 62 

section  of  clay-pit  at 62 

analyses  of  clays  from 63 

Waynesboro  Brick  Co 62 

view  of  power  plant  of 62 

White  and  Mey  Brick  Co 57 

Weatherby,  Dr.,  white  clay  on 

farm  of 59 

Wilkinson  County,  geology  of.  . . . 63 

clays  and  clay  industry  of 63 

Wilson,  J.  C.,  brick  plant  of 58 

Winstead,  T.  B.,  brick  plant  of . . . 60 

Woodville,  brick  industry  at 64 

view  of  Lafayette  and  Columbia 
near 68 


.GE 

19 

19 

15 

34 

35 

43 

43 

43 

48 

54 

29 

56 

58 

58- 

59 

59 

29 

64 

47 

48 

48 

60 

47 

57 

57 

38 

14 

32 


NOTE. 


The  manuscript  of  this  Bulletin  was  submitted  by  Dr. 
Crider  to  the  Publishing  Committee  in  the  Spring  of  1908. 
Its  publication  has  been  unavoidably  delayed  until  the 
present  time.  We  regret  to  announce  that  in  the  mean- 
time Dr.  Crider  has  resigned  the  Directorship  of  the  Geo- 
logical Survey.  His  valuable  work  on  Mississippi  ge- 
ology, however,  will  form  a basis  for  future  work  for  many 
years  to  come. 


E.  N.  Lowe,  Director. 


>m< 


w—  m— m— w— m— m 


A STUDY  OF 

Forest  Conditions 

OF 

Southwestern  Mississippi 


BY 

THE  UNITED  STATES  FOREST  SERVICE 

IN  COOPERATION  WITH 

THE  MISSISSIPPI  STATE  GEOLOGICAL 
SURVEY 


J.  S.  HOLMES,  Forest  Examiner 
J.  H.  FOSTER,  Forest  Assistant 


JANUARY,  1908 


i 

I 

I 

i 

| 

! 

i 


BRANDON-NASHVILLE, 


5 51 
fA&3  b 
S 


LETTER  OF  TRANSMITTAL. 

Jackson,  Mississippi,  March  17,  1909. 

To  His  Excellency , Governor  E.  F.  Noel,  Chairman,  and 
Members  oj  the  Geological  Commission: 

Gentlemen:  I submit  herewith  a report  of  the  forest 

conditions  of  Southwestern  Mississippi,  by  J.  S.  Holmes 
and  J.  H.  Foster,  of  the  United  States  Forest  Service,  and 
respectfully  recommend  its  publication. 

This  is  the  only  official  report  of  the  forest  conditions 
of  Mississippi,  and  while  it  deals  with  only  a small  area  of 
the  State,  it  throws  much  light  on  the  subject  and  shows 
the  need  of  further  investigations. 

Very  respectfully, 

Albert  F.  Crider, 
State  Geologist  oj  Mississippi. 


CONTENTS. 


Page 

Introduction... 5 

The  region 6 

Geology  and  Soil , 6 

Transportation 7 

Labor  Conditions.... 8 

The  Forest 8 

Pure  Longleaf  Type 9 

Loblolly  and  Longleaf  Subtype. 9 

Longleaf  Hills  Type 11 

Hardwood  Hills  Type. 12 

Mississippi  Flood  Plain. 14 

River  and  Creek  Bottoms 15 

Conditions  by  Counties.... 16 

Pike  County 17 

Marion  County  (west  of  Pearl  River) 18 

Lincoln  County 20 

Lawrence  County  (west  of  Pearl  River)... 21 

Copiah  County  22 

Franklin  County 22 

Amite  County.. 24 

Wilkinson  County 26 

Adams  County  27 

Jefferson  County  29 

Claiborne  County 30 

Timber  Industries.... 32 

Lumbering 32 

Turpentining 34 

Tie  Production 35 

Hardwood  Logs  for  Export 36 

Stave  Production 37 

Management 39 

Cutting  by  Types 39 

Pure  Longleaf  Type 40 

Loblolly  and  Longleaf  Subtype 43 

Longleaf  Hills  Type 43 

Hardwood  Hills  Type 44 

Mississippi  Flood  Plain 46 

River  and  Creek  Bottoms 48 

Waste  in  Logging 48 

Fire  Protection 50 

Protection  from  Stock 51 

Contract  for  Sale  of  Timber  52 


4 


CONTENTS. 


Page 

Recommendations _ 54 

State  Forester 54 

Fire  Law 55 

State  Forests _ 55 

School  Lands 56 


A STUDY  OF  FOREST  CONDITIONS  OF  SOUTH- 
WESTERN MISSISSIPPI  BY  THE  UNITED 
STATES  FOREST  SERVICE,  IN  CO-OPERATION 
WITH  THE  STATE  GEOLOGICAL  SURVEY. 


BY 

J.  S.  Holmes,  Forest  Examiner , 
J.  H.  Foster,  Forest  Assistant. 


INTRODUCTION. 

In  1907  the  Geological  Survey  of  the  State  of  Missis- 
sippi requested  the  co-operation  of  the  Forest  Service  of 
the  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture  in  a study 
of  the  forest  resources  of  that  State,  and  made  an  appro- 
priation of  $500  for  the  purpose.  It  is  the  policy  of  the 
Government  to  assist  States  in  investigating  their  resources, 
and  the  Forest  Service  duplicated  the  State  appropriation 
and  made  a total  of  $1,000  available  for  the  work,  which 
was  begun  in  November,  1907.  The  study  was  necessarily 
limited  in  scope,  but  with  further  appropriations  by  the 
State,  which  the  Forest  Service  will  be  glad  to  duplicate, 
the  study  may  be  gradually  extended  to  cover  the  entire 
State. 

The  longleaf  pine  region  in  the  southern  part  of  the 
State  offered  the  most  important  field  for  a beginning. 
The  future  usefulness  of  the  large  areas  of  cut-over 
longleaf  land,  and  the  rapidly  diminishing  supply  of  timber 
were  timely  subjects  for  study  and  investigation. 

This  report  deals  with  the  forest  conditions  in  the  south- 
western counties  of  the  State,  and  includes  a description  of 
the  several  types  of  forest,  a summary  of  the  forest  and 
economic  conditions  of  each  of  the  counties  covered,  and  a 
review  of  the  timber  industries  in  the  region.  Plans  for 
the  conservative  management  of  private  and  public  forest 
lands  are  outlined,  and  recommendations  are  made  for  a 
definite  forest  policy  for  Mississippi. 

The  map  which  accompanies  this  report  defines  the 
western  limit  of  longleaf  pine  in  Mississippi  and  shows 


6 


A STUDY  OF  FOREST  CONDITIONS 


the  location  and  extent  of  the  different  forest  types  in  the 
region  covered.  The  shaded  portions  of  the  map  show 
roughly  the  location  of  the  areas  on  which  the  largest 
bodies  of  pine  timber  are  still  standing.  It  must  not  be 
inferred  that  all  this  area  is  heavily  timbered,  but  the 
greater  part  of  the  remaining  pine  timber  in  this  region 
does  occur  in  these  shaded  areas.* 

* A preliminary  report  on  “The  condition  of  Cut-over  Longleaf 
Pine  Lands  in  Mississippi,”  has  been  issued  as  Circular  149  of  the 
Forest  Service. 

The  area  included  in  this  study  is  approximately  6,200 
square  miles  and  consists  of  the  following  counties : Pike, 
Marion  (West  of  Pearl  River),  Lincoln,  Lawrence  (West 
of  Pearl  River),  Copiah,  Franklin,  Amite,  Wilkinson, 
Adams,  Jefferson  and  Claiborne. 

THE  REGION. 

Geology  and  Soil. — The  region  consists  of  a rolling,  more 
or  less  broken  plateau  which  varies  from  100  to  500  feet  in 
elevation  and  falls  off  precipitously  in  the  vicinity  of  the 
Mississippi  River  to  the  level  bottom-lands. 

The  formations  of  this  portion  of  the  State  are  included 
within  the  later  Cenozoic  period  of  geological  history  and 
consequently  represent  the  most  recent  deposits.  These 
formations  consist  largely  of  Lafayette,  Loess,  Columbia, 
and  the  recent  river  deposits  in  the  bottom-lands. 

The  Lafayette  deposit  consists  of  sands,  gravels,  clays, 
etc.  It  occupies  the  greater  portion  of  southern  Mississippi, 
and  coincides  with  the  longleaf  pine  belt.  The  thickness  of 
the  formation  rarely  exceeds  fifty  feet. 

In  the  southeastern  and  southern  portions  of  the  State, 
the  Lafayette  clays  occupy  most  of  the  uplands  close  to  or 
on  the  surface  of  the  ground.  Toward  the  west  they  be- 
come deeper  seated  and  are  covered  by  brown  and  yellow 
Columbia  loams.  These  loams  are  of  considerable  depth 
in  the  hill  country  and  often  represent  the  deposit  since  the 
clays  were  laid  down. 

Extending  approximately  northeast  and  southwest  at 
varying  distances,  up  to  several  miles,  from  the  Mississippi 
River,  there  is  a chain  of  bluffs  which  fall  off  rapidly  to- 
ward the  river  on  the  west.  This  line  of  bluffs  is  made 


OF  SOUTHWESTERN  MISSISSIPPI. 


7 


up  of  the  Loess  formation  of  very  fine-grained  silt  of  a 
brownish  color.  The  Loess  area  forms  a narrow  tract 
along  the  eastern  border  of  the  Mississippi  Valley,  widest 
towards  the  bluffs  and  gradually  narrowing  to  the  east 
until  finally  blended  with  the  brown  loams. 

Between  the  Loess  bluffs  and  the  Mississippi  River  is 
the  true  Mississippi  flood  plain  or  “delta.”  This  river  level 
is  narrow  in  the  southern  portion  of  the  State,  but  widens  to 
thirty  miles  or  more  toward  the  north. 

From  east  to  west  across  the  State,  then,  the  character 
of  the  soil  changes,  and  in  general,  increases  in  value  toward 
the  Mississippi  River.  The  nature  of  the  tree  growth  is 
governed  by  the  change  in  the  character  of  the  soil. 

Transportation. — The  transportation  facilities  through- 
out this  region  are  excellent.  Main  lines  of  railroad  pene- 
trate each  county,  and  bring  the  producer  within  fairly 
easy  reach  of  New  Orleans  and  Gulfport  on  the  south,  and 
Memphis,  St.  Louis  and  Chicago  on  the  north.  New  lines 
are  being  completed  which  will  further  increase  the  facility 
for  handling  agricultural  and  forest  products.  The  line 
traversing  the  region  east  and  west  from  the  Pearl  River 
to  Natchez  will  soon  be  in  operation.  These  railroad  lines 
have  opened  up  the  country  for  ten  miles  or  more  on  each 
side  of  their  rights  of  way.  Beyond  that,  long  and  dif- 
ficult wagon  hauls  are  necessary.  Along  the  Mississippi 
River  transportation  is  entirely  by  steamboats  and  barges. 

The  large  lumber  companies  located  their  mills  along 
the  main  lines  of  railroad  and  began  operations  almost  be- 
sides their  mill  yards.  As  the  timber  close  at  hand  became 
exhausted,  tram  lines  ar  dummy  roads  were  extended 
toward  the  interior  and  the  logs  were  hauled'  to  the  mills. 
These  roads  are  now  so  extended  that  in  many  cases  opera- 
tions are  being  carried  on  thirty  miles  or  more  from  the 
mills.  Each  county  has  been  penetrated  by  numerous 
logging  railroads,  some  of  which  are  now  permanent  and  of 
extreme  value  to  the  communities. 

Except  in  certain  portions  of  the  hill  country,  railroads 
are  not  hard  to  construct  and  in  no  case  is  transportation  a 
difficult  problem.  Railroad  freight  rates  are  not  excessive 
and  river  transportation  is  still  cheaper. 


8 


A STUDY  OF  FOREST  CONDITIONS 


During  the  greater  part  of  the  year  the  principal  wagon 
roads  are  good,  but  during  the  wet  winter  months  the 
roads  in  many  of  the  counties  are  in  bad  condition,  and  in 
some  cases  they  become  almost  impassable.  Each  county 
decides  on  its  own  method  of  road  maintenance,  and  most 
of  them  are  not  alive  to  the  importance  of  keeping  the 
roads  in  good  condition.  Adams  County  has  excellent  high- 
ways, which  greatly  benefit  its  citizens  by  cheapening  the 
haul  to  market  and  by  bringing  trade  from  surrounding 
counties. 

Good  roads  are  a necessary  part  of  conservative  forest 
management,  for  by  cheapening  the  means  of  transporta- 
tion, the  value  of  the  products  are  proportionately  increased. 

Labor  Conditions. — The  farmer  and  the  lumberman  rely 
upon  negro  labor  since  the  negro  population  varies  from  40 
to  60  per  cent  in  the  uplands  and  pine  country,  to  90  per 
cent  in  some  sections  along  the  Mississippi  River.  The  lum- 
bermen, as  a rule,  experience  little  difficulty  in  getting  all 
the  labor  needed,  since  they  can  afford  to  pay  more  than 
most  farmers.  Wages  for  farm  labor  range  from  75  cents 
to  $1.50  per  day.  In  the  various  lumbering  operations  the 
ordinary  laborer  gets  $1.00  to  $2.00  per  day. 

THE  FOREST. 

The  whole  of  southwestern  Mississippi  was  originally 
under  forest  growth.  The  first  large  clearings  were  made 
along  the  rivers,  and  the  strip  within  reach  of  the  Missis- 
sippi River  was  fairly  well  settled  before  any  railroad  en- 
tered the  State.  It  was  not  until  the  Illinois  Central,  and 
later  the  Yazoo  & Mississippi  Valley,  railroads  were  built, 
that  the  country  back  from  the  river  was  extensively  cleared 
and  settled,  but  since  then,  especially  within  the  last  fifteen 
or  twenty  years,  the  removal  of  the  forest  has  been  carried 
on  at  an  ever-increasing  rate.  At  present  about  one-third 
of  this  region  is  classified  in  the  tax  lists  of  the  various 
counties  as  cleared,  and  fully  one-third  more  has  been  cut- 
over and  left  to  grow  up  in  oak  scrub  or  anything  else  that 
can  resist  the  frequent  fires. 

The  forests  of  this  region  fall  naturally  into  five  divi- 
sions or  types,  according  to  the  nature  of  the  trees  and  the 


OF  SOUTHWESTERN  MISSISSIPPI. 


9 


various  conditions  under  which  they  grow.  These  types 
are : pure  longleaf,  longleaf  hills,  hardwood  hills,  Missis- 
sippi flood  plain,  river  and  creek  bottoms. 

Pure  Longleaf  Type. — The  pure  longleaf  pine  forests 
occupy  the  drier  and  poorer  soils'  of  southwestern  Missis- 
sippi. These  soils  are  in  the  Lafayette  clay  formations,  in 
which  pebbles  are  often  found  in  more  or  less  stratified 
beds;  the  area  includes  the  entire  southern  portion  of  the 
State  as  far  north  as  Copiah  County  west  of  Pearl  River. 
The  pure  longleaf  type  gradually  merges  into  a mixed  type 
of  longleaf  and  shortleaf  pine  in  Franklin  and  Amite  coun- 
ties to  the  west.  East  of  the  Pearl  River  the  type  is  gen- 
eral over  the  entire  southern  region,  extending  nearly  to 
the  Gulf  of  Mexico.  The  region  occupied  by  the  “piney 
woods’’  is  generally  a rolling  country,  characterized  by 
broad,  dry  plateaus  occasionally  cut  by  creek  bottoms.  The 
red  or  yellow  clay  is  close  to  the  surface  over  most  of  the 
uplands. 

Longleaf  pine,  in  pure,  and  mostly  mature  stands,  is  the 
chief  merchantable  tree.  It  grows  tall  and  straight,  with- 
out side  branches  for  fifty  feet  or  more  from  the  ground. 

In  a mature  dense  forest  of  pure  longleaf  pine  there  is 
usually  no  reproduction.  The  ground  is  burned  almost 
every  year  and  no  undergrowth  will  live.  The  mature  trees 
do  not  appear  to  be  injured  by  such  fires,  but  their  growth 
is  undoubtedly  checked,  because  of  the  destruction  of  the 
vegetable  covering  of  the  soil  and  the  injury  to  the  base 
of  the  trees. 

Occasional  small  saplings  or  seedlings  of  oak  are  found 
growing  beneath  the  pines,  and  often  the  ground  is  inter- 
laced with  roots  of  oak,  although  shade  and  fires  prevent 
any  material  growth  of  brush.  When  the  pine  is  cut  off, 
this  oak  at  once  takes  possession  of  the  ground. 

Loblolly  and  Longleaf  Subtype. — On  the  moister  situa- 
tions throughout  this  region  loblolly  pine  is  found  in  mix- 
ture with  the  longleaf,  forming  a distinct  variation  from  the 
main  type.  Loblolly,  because  of  its  more  rapid  growth  in 
early  life,  survives  on  land  where  the  surface  water,  at 
certain  times  of  the  year,  would  kill  out  the  slower  growing 


10 


A STUDY  OF  FOREST  CONDITIONS 


longleaf.  In  such  places  there  are  open  stands,  usually 
with  varying  proportions  of  the  two  pines  and  sometimes 
a small  admixture  of  stunted  hardwoods.  There  is  often 
an  imperceptible  gradation  to  the  river  and  creek  bottoms 
type,  where  the  lobloly  is  an  important  tree. 

The  pine  is  of  excellent  quality,  and  the  mature  timber 
is  mostly  heartwood,  which  remains  sound  for  many  years. 
Except  for  a few  twisted,  or  young,  and  inferior  trees, 
nearly  the  whole  forest  is  merchantable,  and  present  opera- 
tions leave  few  young  trees  standing  on  the  ground  after 
logging. 

The  stand  varies.  Severe  winds  have  destroyed  large 
numbers  of  the  best  trees  in  the  forest,  and  culling  the 
best  trees  for  shingles  or  boards  through  many  years  has 
left  most  of  the  stands  in  an  impaired  condition.  Over 
extensive  areas  old  growth  averages  only  about  5,000  board 
feet  per  acre,  but  occasional  stands  may  average  more 
than  30,000  feet  per  acre  over  limited  areas.  The  general 
average  over  large  areas  of  the  best  timbered  counties  does 
not  exceed  10,000  to  12,000  board  feet  per  acre. 

Within  this  region  naturally  come  the  largest  lumber- 
ing operations.  Mississippi  ranks  third  among  the  States 
producing  yellow  pine.  Lumbering  is  on  a gigantic  scale. 
Each  of  six  mills  cuts  more  than  150,000  board  feet  per 
day,  and  there  are  many  other  mills  cutting  for  local  and 
export  use. 

Turpentining  is  carried  on  in  several  places,  although 
the  industry  has  not  been  developed  so  extensively  as  in 
similar  forests  farther  east. 

The  enormous  demand  for  longleaf  lumber  has  resulted 
in  the  cutting  of  immense  areas,  so  that  from  one-half  to 
three-fourths  of  some  of  the  counties  have  been  cut  over, 
and  these  are  now  burned  and  blackened  stump  lands.  On 
some  of  these  occasional  longleaf  pines  have  been  left,  but 
the  ground  is  partly  covered  by  worthless  scrub  oak,  and  in 
many  places  is  littered  with  burned  and  partly  rotten  logs. 
Over  large  areas  of  the  stump  land  there  are  enough  re- 
maining longleaf  pines  to  seed  the  ground  if  fire  is  kept 
out.  Still  other  areas  are  culled  only,  and  there  is  enough 
timber  left  to  pay  for  another  logging. 


OF  SOUTHWESTERN  MISSISSIPPI. 


11 


Longleaf  Hills  Type. — The  longleaf  hill  stype  occupies 
a strip  of  country  west  of  the  pure  longleaf  pine  area  and 
runs  northeast  and  southwest,  from  southwestern  Copiah 
County  through  central  Franklin  County  to  western  Amite 
and  eastern  Wilkinson  Counties.  It  is,  for  the  most  part, 
a rolling,  hilly  country,  with  deep  ravines  and  steep  slopes. 
Some  parts  are  level  or  gently  rolling,  but  most  of  it  is 
made  up  of  narrow  abrupt  hills.  The  streams  have  cut  deep 
channels,  and  erosion  is  much  more  extensive  than  in  the 
pure  longleaf  region. 

In  these  hills  roads  can  be  constructed  only  along  the 
tops  of  the  sinuous  ridges,  which  are  sometimes  only  wide 
enough  for  the  purpose  and  drop  away  each  side  to  narrow 
ravine  bottoms.  The  soil  is  usually  thin  and  not  as  rich 
as  farther  west,  and  the  subsoil  is  a red  or  yellow’  clay  often 
mixed  with  gravel.  The  more  level  portions  have  been 
extensively  cultivated  for  many  years,  though  the  ravines 
and  abrupt  slopes  are  still  covered  with  native  forests. 

The  ravine  and  lower  slopes  for  the  most  part  are 
covered  with  hardwood  forests.  Oaks  predominate,  asso- 
ciated with  hickory,  sweet  gum,  ash,  and  others.  Loblolly 
pine  is  scattered  over  these  lower  slopes,  and  the  upper 
slopes  and  summits  of  the  ridges  are  covered  by  shortleaf 
and  longleaf  pine  with  some  loblolly  and  hardwoods.  The 
more  level  portions  originally  had  extensive  forests  of  p'ne, 
with  longleaf  predominating  to  the  east,  but  decreasing 
toward  the  west  until  it  finally  disappears  entirely,  giving 
way  to  the  shortleaf,  loblolly,  and  hardwoods. 

Shortleaf  pine  is  generally  tall  and  straight,  with  but 
very  little  sapwood,  and  stands  of  this  sort  sometimes 
average  8,000  to  12,000  board  feet  per  acre;  but  a general 
average  for  the  type  would  be  from  5,000  to  7,000  feet 
per  acre. 

These  forests  have  been  culled  extensively  for  such 
products  as  white  oak  staves,  and  fence  rails,  but  this  prac- 
tice has  not  everywhere  prevailed,  and  splendid  forests  that 
average  from  10,000  to  15,000  board  feet  per  acre,  still 
exist  in  remote  localities.  The  longleaf  pine  in  mixture  in 
the  northeastern  part  of  this  belt  has  largely  disappeared. 
The  country  has  long  been  settled  and  the  easily  accessible 


12 


A STUDY  OF  FOREST  CONDITIONS 


timber  removed.  Some  good  stands  of  longleaf  mixed  with 
shortleaf  and  loblolly  pine  are  still  owned  by  small  lumber 
companies,  which  are  operating  along  the  Yazoo  & Missis- 
sippi Valley  Railroad.  In  Franklin  County  there  are  ex- 
tensive inaccessible  areas  not  yet  exploited,  but  which,  with 
the  completion  of  the  Mississippi  Central  Railroad,  will  be 
made  accessible.  West  of  the  Yazoo  & Mississippi  Valley 
Railroad  are  large  tracts  of  hardwoods  and  shortleaf  pine 
owned  by  lumber  companies.  These  have  not  yet  been 
extensively  lumbered  because  of  the  difficulty  in  construct- 
ing tramroads  into  the  hills. 

No  extensive  areas  of  this  region  show  the  evil  effects 
of  recent  logging.  Reproduction  of  shortleaf  and  loblolly 
pine  is  generally  good,  and  often  a carpet  of  seedling*  is 
conspicuous  under  the  mature  trees.  Longleaf,  however, 
does  not  reproduce  very  well.  Only  in  a few  places,  where 
some  of  the  old  timber  has  been  removed  by  lumbering  or 
other  causes,  and  where  fire  has  been  kept  out,  is  there 
satisfactory  reproduction  of  this  species.  There  is  seedling 
and  sprout  reproduction  of  the  hardwoods  all  through  the 
forest,  but  the  shade  of  the  pines,  where  they  are  plen- 
tiful, keeps  this  growth  suppressed.  Fires  do  much  damage 
to  reproduction,  but  owing  to  the  broken  nature  of  the 
country  they  are  not  so  extensive  or  disastrous  as  in  the 
pure  longleaf  type. 

Hardwood  Hills  Type. — Between  the  hilly  country  occu- 
pied by  mixed  pine  and  the  flood  plain  of  the  Mississippi 
River  is  located  the  hill  and  bluff  region  of  loess  or  silt 
formation.  This  falls  off  abruptly  to  the  Mississippi  bot- 
tomlands on  the  west  and  on  the  east  passes  by  imper- 
ceptible gradations  into  the  pine  hills.  The  soil  is  extremely 
fertile  and  increases  in  depth  toward  the  cliffs.  The  slopes 
are  usually  steep  and  the  ridges,  especially  in  the  western 
part,  are  very  narrow.  One  of  the  chief  functions  of  a 
forest  on  such  situations,  therefore,  is  to  prevent  erosion. 
This  was  among  the  first  sections  of  the  State  to  be  settled 
and  cultivated.  Many  years  before  the  Civil  War  the 
forests  on  the  more  level  and  rolling  land  had  been  cleared 
for  plantations,  and  today  this  is  still  one  of  the  best 
agricultural  regions  of  Mississippi.  The  forests  are  now 


OF  SOUTHWESTERN  MISSISSIPPI. 


13 


confined  almost  entirely  to  the  slopes  and  ridges  too  steep 
for  cultivation  and  to  the  abandoned  fields  now  growing 
up  with  pine  and  hardwoods. 

The  original  forest  was  entirely  of  hardwoods,  and 
many  persons  living  in  the  region  remember  when  no 
pines  were  seen  anywhere.  The  principal  commercial  species 
of  this  type  are  white  oak,  yellow  poplar,  ash,  hickory, 
sweet  gum,  water  oak,  magnolia,  beech,  tupelo  gum,  and 
walnut.  At  the  present  time  at  least  half  of  the  area  of  the 
type  contains  a mixture  of  loblolly  and  shortleaf  pines  with 
the  hardwoods  while  the  old  fields  are  usually  occupied  by 
pine  to  the  exclusion  of  merchantable  hardwoods.  Heavy 
stands  are  found  in  some  places,  but  the  whole  region  will 
not  average  over  2,000  to  4,000  feet  per  acre  for  all  the 
forest  land.  The  forests  have  been  culled  to  such  an  extent 
for  local  and  export  use  that  there  is  practically  no  virgin 
timber  left,  except  in  the  most  inaccessible  situations.  The 
young  growth  comes  up  rapidly,  however,  and  is  tall  and 
straight,  so  that  there  is  often  a good  stand  of  small 
thrifty  trees  where  cuttings  have  been  made  sometime  ago. 

Reproduction  of  the  better  species  is  usually  excellent. 
Ash,  sweet  gum,  water  oak,  and  hickory  are  especially 
abundant.  Both  species  of  pine  seed  reproduce  freely 
where  seed  trees  are  present,  so  much  so  that  in  some  places 
there  is  a probability  that  the  hardwoods  will  be  eventually 
crowded  out.  A dense  undergrowth  of  cane,  often  found 
among  the  river  hills,  seriously  hinders  reproduction,  but 
furnishes  excellent  winter  pasturage  for  cattle. 

The  second  growth  forests,  which  come  up  on  abandoned 
fields,  vary  considerably  from  those  of  original  growth, 
almost  justifying  their  separation  into  a different  type  or 
subtype.  Two  variations  of  the  oldfield  growth  are  found, 
hardwood  and  pine.  The  hardwoods  come  in  on  abandoned 
fields  more  slowly  than  the  pine.  They  are  usually  of  the 
poorer  species,  such  as  sassafras,  hackberry,  plum,  and  the 
inferior  oaks,  and  it  is  only  after  many  years  that  a stand 
of  the  better  species,  such  as  yellow  poplar,  white  oak,  and 
hickory  becomes  established.  Black  locust  comes  in  natural- 
ly and  is  one  of  the  most  valuable  and  fastest  growing  trees 
in  this  type,  but  it  is  liable  to  serious  damage  by  fire  and 
insects. 


14 


A STUDY  OF  FOREST  CONDITIONS 


Where  seed  trees  are  near  enough,  old  fields  usually 
seed  up  with  loblolly  and  shortleaf.  These  grow  faster  than 
the  hardwoods  and  form  a much  denser  stand.  Their  rela- 
tive proportion  in  mixture  varies  according  to  the  avail- 
able seed  trees  and  to  the  quality  and  moisture  content  of 
the  soil,  the  loblolly  preferring  the  deeper,  moister  soil. 
These  old  fields  are  frequently  used  for  pasturage,  and  the 
grass  is  burnt  off  to  improve  the  range.  As  a result  the 
pines  are  often  sadly  injured  and  the  soil  impoverished. 

Mississippi  Flood  Plain. — All  the  bottoms  and  swamps 
lying  between  the  Mississippi  River  and  the  “cliffs/’  or 
loess  hills,  are  subject  to  overflow  or  would  be  overflowed 
were  they  not  protected  by  the  levees.  The  most  extended 
areas  lie  about  the  mouths  of  the  larger  rivers,  such  as  the 
Big  Black  and  Homochitto,  where  water  from  the  Missis- 
sippi often  backs  up  these  streams  for  many  miles,  flooding 
the  country  on  either  side.  The  greater  part  of  this  area 
is  submerged  only  in  times  of  high  water,  but  much  of  the 
low  swamp  land  is  under  water  the  greater  part  of  the 
year. 

The  soils  of  these  overflowed  lands  are  alluvial  deposits 
of  sandy  loam,  varying  to  clay  loam.  Where  a stream  carry- 
ing sediment  overflows  its  banks,  the  water  begins  at  once 
to  lose  its  velocity  and  deposit  the  sediment.  The  coarser 
and  heavier  particles  of  its  suspended  matter  are  deposited 
near  the  streams,  while  the  finer  particles  are  carried  longer 
in  suspension  and  are  dropped  farther  from  the  main  chan- 
nel. It  is  for  this  reason  that  the  land  nearest  the  river 
is  often  higher  and  better  drained  than  that  farther  back. 
The  former  is  probably  the  richest  land  in  the  country  and, 
where  it  can  be  drained  and  protected  from  overflow,  it  is 
being  rapidly  cleared  for  cultivation. 

As  the  currents  of  the  Mississippi  tear  away  the  banks 
and  make  new  deposits,  the  course  of  the  river  is  con- 
stantly changed.  Much  of  the  newly-formed  so’l  seeds  up 
with  cottonwood  and  willow,  the  seeds  being  carried  with 
the  overflow  on  the  surface  of  the  water  and  deposited  as 
the  water  receded.  This  results  in  even-aged  and  pure 
stands  of  these  species  over  large  areas  of  the  Mississippi 


OF  SOUTHWESTERN  MISSISSIPPI. 


15 


River  country.  Later  many  of  these  areas  seed  up  under- 
neath with  sycamore,  elm,  red  oak,  and  other  hardwoods, 
which  in  time  replace  the  cottonwood  and  willow.  Over- 
cup oaks,  gums  and  cypress  finally  take  possession  of  the 
poorest  drained  soils.  Cypress  and  tupelo  gum  are  found 
mostly  on  land  that  is  flooded  throughout  the  year. 

Originally,  the  timber  on  these  flood  plains  was  of  mag- 
nificent size.  Even  yet  cottonwood  is  being  cut  which  yields 

2.000  board  feet  per  tree,  and  stands  of  mature  cottonwood 
often  yield  from  20,000  to  30,000  feet  per  acre.  Undoubt- 
edly some  of  the  original  cypress  and  gum  stands  averaged 

50.000  feet  per  acre.  At  present,  however,  there  is  little 
virgin  timber  in  this  type,  much  of  it  having  been  culled 
over  several  times.  Often  all  timber  that  will  float,  such 
as  cypress,  cottonwood,  willow,  ash  and  oak  has  been  taken, 
and  only  the  gum  and  some  inferior  species  left.  On  many 
of  the  plantations  some  cypress  has  been  reserved  for  home 
use,  as  this  furnishes  the  material  most  used  for  fencing, 
barn  building  and  general  repairs. 

On  most  of  these  bottom-land  swamps  there  is  little 
reproduction  because  of  the  excess  of  water  through  the 
greater  part  of  the  year.  On  the  better-drained  soils,  such 
undergrowths  as  cane,  green  brier,  and  dwarf  palmetto,  and 
the  density  of  the  forests,  greatly  interfere  with  the  re- 
production of  the  species  that  cannot  endure  shade.  The 
rate  of  growth  is  generally  rapid,  especially  on  the  better 
drained  soils,  but  cypress  always  grows  slowly.  Fire  some- 
times runs  over  the  drier  land  in  the  summer  season,  but  the 
fire  danger  is  not  serious. 

River  and  Creek  Bottoms. — The  chief  rivers  of  this 
region  are  the  Pearl,  Homochitto,  Black,  Bogue  Chitto, 
Amite,  Bayou  Pierre  and  Buffalo  Bayou.  The  soil  and 
moisture  conditions  of  the  bottom  bordering  these  streams, 
their  tributaries  and  other  creeks  vary  so  much  from  the 
surrounding  country,  and  even  from  the  Mississippi  flood 
plain,  with  a consequent  variation  in  the  nature  and  com- 
position of  the  forest,  that  these  bottoms  give  rise  to  a 
practically  separate  type.  In  many  cases,  however,  they  are 
so  narrow,  often  only  a strip  on  one  or  both  sides  of  the 


16 


A STUDY  OF  FOREST  CONDITIONS 


stream,  that  this  type  cannot  be  accurately  marked  on  the 
map. 

The  soils  of  these  bottoms  vary  according  to  the  size 
and  location  of  the  stream,  the  elevation  of  the  land  above 
the  stream  level,  and  the  rate  of  the  streamflow;  all  contain 
a considerable  amount  of  organic  matter  and  are  quite 
fertile.  For  this  reason  much  of  the  type  has  been  cleared, 
and  the  rest  of  it  will  undoubtedly  be  used  for  agriculture  as 
soon  as  the  land  can  be  successfully  drained. 

The  forests  are  composed  mostly  of  hardwoods  and 
differ  from  those  of  the  Mississippi  bottoms  chiefly  in  the 
entire  absence  of  cottonwood  and  willow  stands,  and  in  the 
presence  of  loblolly  pine  on  all  but  the  lowest  ground. 
Cypress,  tupelo  gum,  ash,  sycamore  and  elm  flourish  on  the 
lower,  poorer-drained  soils,  while  loblolly,  oaks,  sweet  gum, 
magnolia  and  beech  do  better  on  the  warmer  soils.  Growth 
is  rapid,  especially  on  the  well-drained  soils.  Most  of  this 
bottomland  type  has  been  culled  over,  especially  for  cypress, 
the  greater  part  of  which  has  been  cut  and  floated  down 
stream  to  market.  There  is  some  old  growth  loblolly  of 
large  size  still  to  be  found,  chiefly  along  the  smaller  water 
courses,  and  young  growth  comes  in  very  rapidly  on  aban- 
doned old  fields,  as  in  the  other  hardwood  types.  Oak  and 
gum  now  form  the  larger  part  of  the  commercial  timber  in 
this  type,  as  there  has  been  very  little  demand  for  these 
species  for  local  use,  and  they  can  only  be  used  for  ship- 
ment where  transportation  facilities  are  good. 

Reproduction  on  these  bottoms  is  usually  excellent, 
especially  of  the  smaller  seeded  species,  such  as  loblolly, 
tupelo  and  sweet  gum,  ash  and  sycamore.  Much  oak  seed 
is  eaten  by  the  hogs  that  range  over  the  bottoms  and  are 
fattened  altogether  from  the  mast  of  oak,  hickory  and 
beech.  Fire,  though  rarer  in  the  bottoms  than  on  the  dry 
uplands,  often  does  great  injury,  especially  to  the  repro- 
duction. 

CONDITIONS  BY  COUNTIES. 

The  question  of  the  method  of  management  to  be  em- 
ployed in  any  certain  case  depends  upon  the  forest  type, 
the  local  markets  and  means  of  transportation,  the  present 
condition  and  ultimate  purpose  of  the  forest  and  other  minor 


OF  SOUTHWESTERN  MISSISSIPPI. 


17 


considerations.  In  the  following  description  of  conditions 
in  each  of  the  counties  included  in  this  study,  these  points 
are  touched  upon  in  order  that  local  conditions  may  be 
understood  and  that  the  recommendations  given  elsewhere 
in  this  report  may  be  intelligently  applied  in  individual 
cases.  In  these  descriptions  the  proportion  of  cleared  to 
forest  land  in  the  various  counties  was,  in  most  cases,  taken 
from  the  county  records  and  checked  up  as  closely  as  possi- 
ble by  the  personal  investigations  of  men  in  the  field. 

Pike  County. — Pike  County,  with  an  area  of  approxi- 
mately 450,000  acres,  of  which  about  30  per  cent  is  cleared, 
lies  entirely  within  the  pure  longleaf  area.  It  is  for  the 
most  part  a gently  rolling  country  with  a variation  in  ele- 
vation of  not  more  than  from  100  to  150  feet.  Originally 
the  county  was  covered,  except  for  the  bottomlands,  with 
pure  longleaf  pine.  The  Bogue  Chitto  River,  the  bottom- 
lands of  which  once  contained  magnificent  hardwoods  and 
cypress,  passes  through  the  center  of  the  county.  The  Illi- 
nois Central  Railroad  passes  through  the  western  portion, 
and  at  frequent  points  along  this  line  lumber  companies 
have  established  sawmills  and  built  tram  lines  east  and  west 
from  the  main  line  of  railroad.  Longleaf  pine  is  lumbered 
almost  exclusively. 

There  are  only  two  types  of  forest  in  Pike  County,  the 
longleaf  uplands  and  the  bottomlands.  The  former  covers 
extensive  areas,  probably  80  per  cent  of  the  county,  of 
which  at  least  one-third  is  still  well  forested.  The  bottom- 
lands have  been  extensively  cleared  for  cultivation,  and  there 
is  little  merchantable  hardwood  now  found  there. 

The  eastern  half  of  the  county  still  contains  large  areas 
of  excellent  pine.  All  this  timber,  however,  is  in  the  hands 
of  a few  lumber  companies  which  are  rapidly  exploiting 
it.  Three  lines  of  logging  railroad  penetrate  the  timber 
from  the  Illinois  Central  Railroad,  and  another  is  reaching 
up  from  the  mills  at  Bogalusa,  Louisiana.  Small  mills  are 
lumbering  isolated  areas,  or  removing  the  timber  left  on 
areas  that  were  lightly  culled  some  years  ago.  Many  of 
these  culled  stands  contain  2,000  to  3,000  board  feet  per 
acre.  Virgin  stands  in  the  eastern  townships  yield  from 
10,000  to  30,000  feet  per  acre  on  small  areas.  Farmers  are 


18 


A STUDY  OF  FOREST  CONDITIONS 


getting  an  average  of  $20  an  acre  for  pine  lands.  Some 
acres  have  sold  for  $50.  Stumpage  is  about  $2  per  thou- 
sand, or  from  $5  to  $20  per  acre.  Approximately  420,000 
board  feet  of  longleaf  pine  are  cut  daily  for  export  use 
from  mills  located  along  the  line  of  the  Illinois  Central. 
Some'  of  this  timber,  however,  comes  from  other  counties. 

In  the  past  two  or  three  years  great  damage  has  been 
done  to  the  standing  longleaf  pine  of  this  county  by  wind- 
storms, especially  in  moist  sags  within  the  plateau  regions. 
Probably  100,000,000  feet  of  fine  timber  have  been  de- 
stroyed. 

Much  of  this  pine  land  is  valuable  for  agriculture,  but 
it  may  not  be  cultivated,  because  not  needed,  for  many 
years  to  come.  So  far,  cultivation  has  been  carried  on  chiefly 
within  from  six  to  ten  miles  of  the  railroad. 

Turpentining  is  practiced  more  extensively  in  Pike 
County  than  in  any  of  the  other  counties  west  of  the  Pearl 
River.  Tylertown  is  the  center  for  the  orchards  of  the 
Femwood  Lumber  Company,  and  considerable  turpentining 
is  also  done  in  the  northern  townships.  Railroad  ties  are 
cut  from  old  field  pine  and  also  from  standing  dead  trees 
or  heart  pine.  They  are  sold  at  25  cents  each  at  the  rail- 
road. Cordwood  sells  at  about  $1.25  per  cord  where  there 
is  demand  for  it. 

Years  ago  most  of  the  school  lands  were  leased  and 
the  lessees  disposed  of  the  standing  timber.  The  schools 
of  the  county  have  thereby  been  deprived  of  a good  source 
of  revenue  which  would  now  be  coming  in  from  these 
pine  lands. 

Marion  County  ( west  of  Pearl  River). — Western  Ma- 
rion County,  between  Pike  County  and  the  Pearl  River,  is 
one  of  the  few  areas  in  Mississippi  which  still  remains 
heavily  timbered.  It  is  a continuation  of  the  longleaf  region 
of  eastern  Pike  County  not  yet  lumbered,  and  consists 
of  longleaf  upland  and  narrow  intervening  creek  bottoms 
covered  with  hardwoods,  mostly  of  second  growth.  Con- 
siderable areas  of  bottom-lands  skirt  the  Pearl  River,  al- 
though along  some  portions  of  it  the  banks  are  more  or  less 
precipitous. 


OF  SOUTHWESTERN  MISSISSIPPI. 


19 


There  are  approximately  63,000  acres  of  cleared  land 
and  137,500  acres  of  uncleared  land  in  this  county  west  of 
the  Pearl  River.  Of  the  uncleared  area  probably  60  per 
cent  consists  of  merchantable  timber,  mostly  longleaf  pine. 
It  is  estimated  that  there  are  only  800  to  1,000  acres  of  true 
stump  land  in  this  area  at  the  present  time.  Many  thou- 
sands of  acres  of  pine  land,  however,  have  been  culled  over 
in  the  past,  and  cannot  now  be  classed  as  first  quality 
pine  land.  Extensive  areas  have  been  boxed  for  turpen- 
tine, and  the  trees  left  to  blow’  down  or  burn  up,  because 
of  the  absence  of  any  lumber  industries  to  use  the  boxed 
trees.  There  is  comparatively  little  of  the  old  field  pine 
type. 

This  western  portion  of  the  county  is  largely  a high, 
dry  plateau,  extending  eastward  from  McGee’s  Creek,  in 
Pike  County,  and  falling  off  more  or  less  abruptly  to  the 
Pearl  River  bottom-lands.  Lumbering  has  scarcely  begun 
over  this  longleaf  pleateau  land.  The  timber  is  owned  by 
several  lumber  and  realty  companies  which  will  eventually 
log  the  land  from  the  tram  lines  approaching  from  the 
Illinois  Central  Railroad,  and  from  the  New  Orleans  Great 
Northern  Railroad,  recently  constructed  northward  from 
New  Orleans  along  the  Pearl  River.  A branch  of  this 
line  running  to  Tylertown  from  Louisiana  will  carry  out 
much  of  the  timber. 

The  timber  has  suffered  severely  from  cyclones  within 
recent  years,  but  there  are  stands  which  still  run  30,000 
board  feet  per  acre. 

As  yet  there  are  few  timber  industries  in  the  county. 
Turpentining  will  increase  greatly  as  logging  commences. 
Ties  are  cut  from  the  townships  bordering  on  the  Pearl 
River  that  are  mostly  accessible  to  the  railroad  now  being 
built. 

The  longleaf  pine  land  is  assessed  at  from  $10  to  $15 
per  acre  and  stump  land  at  from  $3  to  $5  per  acre.  Agri- 
culture has  been  but  little  carried  on  in  these  uplands,  and 
the  population  is  scattered.  There  is  much  fine  agricultural 
land  along  the  Pearl  River  and  at  the  base  of  the  uplands, 
and  the  larger  part  of  the  cultivated  land  is  naturally  there. 
The  new  railroad  through  this  county  will  develop  the 


20 


A STUDY  OF  FOREST  CONDITIONS 


agricultural  resources  of  this  section  as  well  as  afford 
transportation  facilities  for  the  large  undeveloped  timber 
supply. 

Lincoln  County. — Lincoln  County  lies  almost  entirely 
within  the  longleaf  belt.  It  was  once  heavily  timbered,  but 
today  its  timber  is  practically  exhausted.  The  topography 
is  gently  rolling  to  level,  and  the  changes  from  upland  to 
stream  bottom  are  seldom  abrupt.  The  region  is  well 
drained  by  numerous  streams.  About  113,600  acres  are 
classified  as  cleared  land,  while  259,000  acres  are  uncleared. 
Of  this  uncleared  area  only  about  one-quarter,  or  less  than 
18  per  cent,  of  the  entire  area  now  supports  a growth  of 
merchantable  timber,  while  the  rest  has  been  culled  or 
remains  as  unproductive  stump  land,  blackened  by  repeated 
fires  and  produces,  at  best,  only  an  inferior  quality  of  oaks 
and  other  hardwoods.  The  cleared  lands  consist  of  culti- 
vated creek  bottoms,  the  more  level  portions  of  the  uplands 
and  old  fields.  These  old  fields  are  abandoned  because  of 
erosion  or  impoverishment  of  the  soil,  and  are  now  growing 
up  to  loblolly  pine,  which  is  frequently  mixed  with  young 
hardwoods.  There  are  no  extensive  areas  of  hardwood 
bottoms  which  have  not  been  culled  for  more  valuable 
oaks,  hickories,  poplar  and  cypress.  Second-growth  lob- 
lolly on  old  fields  frequently  attains  considerable  size,  and  is 
being  cut  for  lumber.  A growth  of  12  inches  in  diameter 
in  twenty-five  years  is  not  at  all  infrequent. 

The  Illinois  Central  Railroad  passes  through  the  county 
from  north  to  south,  and  many  years  ago  opened  up  the 
country  for  farming  and  lumbering.  Logging  has  been 
done  on  the  most  extensive  scale.  The  total  estimated 
capacity  of  the  principal  mills  operating  along  the  Illinois 
Central  Railroad  in  this  county  amounts  to  700,000  board 
feet  of  longleaf  pine  per  day  in  the  form  of  lumber,  shin- 
gles, laths,  etc.  Lumbering  on  such  a scale  has  taken 
almost  all  the  longleaf  pine  in  the  county.  Operations 
are  now  chiefly  confined  to  small  bodies  of  timber  in  the 
southeast  townships. 

Recently  the  Mississippi  Central  Railroad  has  been 
constructed  through  the  county  from  the  east,  which  will 
give  direct  connections  between  Hattiesburg  and  Natchez, 


OF  SOUTHWESTERN  MISSISSIPPI. 


21 


and  this  will  greatly  foster  the  agricultural  development 
of  the  county.  Tram  lines  have  penetrated  every  portion 
of  the  county  and  many  of  them  now  are  hauling  logs  from 
adjacent  counties  to  the  mills  along  the  Illinois  Central 
Railroad. 

The  region  has  no  valuable  reproduction.  Barely  one 
per  cent  of  the  stump  land  is  free  from  annual  fires,  and 
new  growth  is  confined  almost  entirely  to  old  fields.  Much 
of  this  land  will  in  time  undoubtedly  be  brought  under 
cultivation,  but  a great  deal  of  the  stump  land  will  remain 
idle  until  intensive  methods  of  farming  are  rrfore  generally 
practiced. 

Lawrence  County  ( west  of  Pearl  River). — The  topogra- 
phy of  the  western  part  of  Lawrence  County  is  similar  to 
that  of  Lincoln  County,  except  for  the  strip  of  bottom- 
lands adjacent  to  the  Pearl  River.  With  an  approximate 
area  of  156,000  acres,  only  about  34,000  acres,  or  a little 
more  than  20  per  cent,  is  listed  as  cleared  land.  In  portions 
of  the  Pearl  River  bottom-lands  and  the  vicinity  of  creeks 
the  cleared  land  is  extensive,  and  upland  cultivation  is  also 
considerable.  The  uncleared  land  consists  of  hardwood 
bottoms,  isolated  stands  of  longleaf  pine,  and  stump  land. 
A large  proportion  of  the  longleaf  uplands  has  been  logged 
within  recent  years.  In  this  county  the  lumber  industry 
is  nearly  gone.  The  only  remaining  longleaf  pine  stands 
are  in  the  four  southern  townships  and  a few  isola.ed 
holdings  in  the  northern  part  of  the  county. 

The  New  Orleans  Great  Northern  Railroad  passes 
through  the  county  close  to  the  Pearl  River,  and  the  Missis- 
sippi Central  crosses  it  from  east  to  west.  These  railroads, 
with  the  line  connecting  Monticello  and  Brookhaven,  greatly 
facilitate  the  development  of  the  county.  The  lumbering  is 
done  over  dummy  lines  extending  from  the  Illinois  Cen- 
tral Railroad.  The  longleaf  pine  timber  remaining  will 
be  exhausted  within  a few”  years,  and  possibilities  for 
agriculture  are  excellent. 

Pine  land  is  assessed  at  $15  per  acre,  cultivated  land  at 
$10  per  acre,  and  stump  lands,  old  field  and  hardwood 
land  at  $5  per  acre. 


22 


A STUDY  OF  FOREST  CONDITIONS 


Copiah  County. — The  forests  of  Copiah  County  vary 
from  pure  longleaf  in  the  southeast  to  the  hardwood  hills 
in  the  northwest,  but  the  greater  part  of  the  county  is 
occupied  by  the  longleaf  hills  type.  This  variation  in  forest 
type  corresponds  to  the  change  in  the  character  and  forma- 
tion of  the  soil.  While  the  southeastern  portion  of  the 
county  contains  the  Lafayette  red  clays,  the  northern  part 
consists  of  silts  or  loess  of  great  fertility.  Between  these 
extremes,  the  soil  changes  gradually.  This  change  marks 
the  limit  of  longleaf  pine  as  a pure  type,  for  in  the  fertile 
soils  of  the  silt  formation  the  species  is  rare.  North  of  this 
transition  area,  hardwoods  formerly  occupied  much  of  the 
land.  The  county  is  nearly  level  or  gently  rolling,  and 
much  of  it  has  been  cultivated  for  many  years.  It  com- 
prises an  area  of  442,000  acres,  of  which  nearly  70  per  cent 
is  cleared.  A considerable  amount  of  the  land  classed  as 
“cleared,”  however,  contains  old  field  pine  and  second- 
growth  hardwoods.  The  uncleared  area  contains  pure  and 
mixed  longleaf  pine  and  hardwoods.  Very  little  of  the 
merchantable  hardwood  is  left.  Practically  all  the  pure 
longleaf  pine  in  the  county  is  now  held  in  the  four  south- 
east townships,  which  contain  65  per  cent  of  the  virgin  pine 
of  the  county.  It  is  being  lumbered  from  the  vicinity  of 
Wesson,  on  the  Illinois  Central  Railroad.  The  New  Or- 
leans Great  Northern  Railroad  will  be  the  means  of  opening 
up  the  region  along  the  Pearl  River.  In  the  southwestern 
portion  of  the  county  the  longleaf  is  of  poorer  quality  and 
in  mixture  with  shortleaf.  South  of  Hazelhurst,  along  the 
Illinois  Central  Railroad,  was  once  a longleaf  country,  but 
the  timber  has  been  removed.  Local  sawmills  scattered 
about  the  county  are  cutting  old  field  pine  and  scattered 
virgin  timber,  both  pine  and  hardwoods.  Agricultural  land 
is  extremely  valuable,  and  is  often  worth  $30  to  $50  an 
acre.  Northern  Copiah  County  is  devoted  largely  to  agri- 
culture and  is  becoming  noted  as  a truck-raising  district. 

Franklin  County. — Franklin  County  has  an  area  of  about 
380,000  acres.  Less  than  one-fourth  of  it  is  listed  as  cleared 
land,  much  of  which  is  now  reverting  to  a sceond  growth 
of  pine.  The  western  border  of  the  longleaf  pine  region 
runs  in  a southwesterly  direction  through  this  county.  The 


OF  SOUTHWESTERN  MISSISSIPPI. 


23 


pure  longleaf  type,  which  covers  about  io  per  cent  of  the 
total  area  of  the  county,  extends  only  into  its  extreme 
southeast  corner.  This  has  nearly  all  been  cut  over  within 
the  past  five  years.  The  greater  part  of  it  is  now  practi- 
cally denuded  of  pine  and  is  supporting  only  a scrubby 
growth  of  the  inferior  species  of  oak.  Very  little  of  this 
land  has  as  yet  been  cleared  for  agriculture.  If  seed  trees 
of  pine  had  been  left  when  the  lumbering  was  done  a good 
growth  of  pine  might  now  be  coming  in,  to  take  the  place  of 
the  forest  removed.  This  corner  of  the  county  is  so  far 
distant  from  lines  of  railroad  that  it  will  probably  be  many 
years  before  much  of  it  will  be  much  needed  for  agricul- 
ture, and  a second  crop  of  valuable  timber  coming  on  the 
land  would  have  been  of  great  profit  to  its  owners  and  to 
the  county. 

The  longleaf  hills  type  covers  over  half  of  the  county. 
Owing  to  the  mixed  character  of  the  forest,  the  broken 
nature  of  the  country,  and  its  remoteness  from  the  railroads, 
the  greater  part  of  the  timber  is  still  standing.  Longleaf 
is  the  predominant  species,  and  forms  from  50  to  70  per  cent 
of  the  stand  over  large  areas.  The  timber  is  sound  and 
healthy,  but  it  is  not  as  tall  as  the  longleaf  farther  east. 
It  is  for  the  most  part  confined  to  the  top  and  upper  slopes 
of  the  hills.  Shortleaf  and  loblolly  pine  in  varying  propor- 
tions make  up  about  30  per  cent  of  the  forest.  On  the 
average  about  10  per  cent  of  the  stand  is  hardwood,  such 
as  white  oak,  yellow  poplar,  sweet  gum  and  hickory,  which 
occur  mostly  in  the  hollows  and  lower  slopes  of  the  hills. 
On  some  areas,  however,  more  than  half  the  timber  is  hard- 
wood. Lumbering,  except  for  local  use,  has  been  confined 
to  the  pure  longleaf  type  and  to  several  places  along  the 
Yazoo  & Mississippi  Valley  Railroad  in  the  hardwood  hills 
type,  reaching  into  the  longleaf  hills  in  only  one  or  two 
places.  But  with  the  construction  of  the  Mississippi  Cen- 
tral Railroad  and  with  the  gradual  exhaustion  of  longleaf 
in  other  sections,  a good  many  mills  are  starting  up,  while 
several  large  companies  are  buying  all  the  timberland  avail- 
able. Franklin  will  in  a short  time  be  one  of  the  largest 
lumber-producing  counties  in  the  region.  The  greater  part 
of  the  longleaf  hills  type  is  possibly  better  fitted  for  the 


24 


A STUDY  OF  FOREST  CONDITIONS 


growth  of  forest  than  for  field  crops,  and  so  in  all  logging 
operations  care  should  be  taken  to  perpetuate  the  forest 
by  leaving  seed  trees,  by  preventing  injury  to  young  growth, 
and  by  fire  protection. 

The  hardwood  hills  type  lies  along  the  western  and 
northwestern  borders  of  the  county  and  covers  barely  one- 
third  of  its  total  area.  This  part  of  the  county  has  fur- 
nished most  of  the  stave  timber  which  has  been,  in  the  past, 
one  of  its  chief  timber  outputs.  A large  portion  of  this 
section  has  been  cleared  for  agriculture,  but  much  land 
has  been  allowed  to  revert  to  forest.  These  areas,  now 
grown  up  in  loblolly  pine,  are  furnishing  practically  all  the 
railroad  ties  of  the  county.  In  the  past  year  this  industry 
has  more  than  doubled  its  output,  and  now  there  are  five 
or  six  mills  for  cutting  ties  in  this  part  of  the  county. 

The  Homochitto  River  runs  through  the  county,  and 
there  are  considerable  areas  of  bottom-lands  along  this 
stream  and  its  tributaries,  though  probably  not  over  five 
per  cent  of  the  county  is  in  this  type.  Some  good  blocks  of 
timber,  consisting  of  oak,  gum,  loblolly,  etc.,  are  found, 
though  lands  which  are  dry  enough  are  being  cleared  for 
agriculture.  Cypress,  which  was  once  plentiful  through 
these  river  swamps,  has  mostly  been  cut  out  and  floated 
down  the  river  to  market. 

Franklin  County  is  developing  its  agricultural  resources 
year  by  year,  but  for  some  time  there  will  be  considerable 
land  on  which  it  will  be  more  profitable  to  grow1  timber. 
With  the  great  increase  in  the  lumber  output,  which  has 
already  begun,  especial  care  should  be  taken  to  log  such 
land  conservatively,  while  fire  protection  should  be  under- 
taken by  the  owner  and  encouraged  in  every  way  by  the 
county. 

Amite  County. — Amite  County  includes  all  of  the  forest 
types  except  the  Mississippi  bottoms.  The  pure  longleaf 
type  extends  over  the  eastern  half  of  the  county.  The 
western  half,  except  for  the  southwestern  townships,  is 
covered  by  the  longleaf  hills  type.  The  southwestern  part 
of  the  county  is  largely  cleared,  and  resembles  the  more 
level  topography  of  Wilkinson  County.  It  is  classed  as 
hardwood  hills.  The  county  has  an  area  of  443,000  acres, 


OF  SOUTHWESTERN  MISSISSIPPI. 


25 


of  which  only  about  one^fourth  is  listed  as  cleared  land. 
The  greater  part  of  the  land  under  cultivation  is  in  the  west- 
ern half,  where  the  soil  is  much  more  fertile,  and  agricul- 
ture has  been  engaged  in  for  many  years.  The  soil  here 
is  influenced  to  a great  extent  by  the  loess  silts.  The  eastern 
half  of  the  county  consists  of  dry  longleaf  pine  uplands  with 
frequent  narrow  creek  bottoms.  Pure  longleaf  pine  former- 
ly covered  these  uplands,  and  lumbering  began  many  years 
ago  on  a small  scale.  Dummy  lines  were  constructed  from 
points  on  the  Illinois  Central  Railroad.  At  first  only  the 
finest  timber  was  removed,  but  present  operations  leave 
practically  no  pine  timber  on  the  land.  There  is  still  some 
good  timber  not  yet  lumbered,  and  there  are  other  large 
areas  which  have  been  culled. 

It  is  estimated  that  one-half  of  the  longleaf  uplands 
have  been  cut  over  and  are  now  mostly  stump  lands.  Proba- 
bly one-fourth  of  the  timber  was  culled  out  or  destroyed 
years  ago,  and  today  these  lands  either  still  retain  some 
longleaf  pine  or  have  grown  up  to  hardwoods  and  loblolly 
pine.  The  remaining  one-fourth  of  the  original  longleaf 
pine  is  still  uncut  and  will  last  probably  from  ten  to  fifteen 
years. 

West  of  the  center  of  the  county  the  longleaf  pine  is 
largely  mixed  with  loblolly  and  shortleaf.  The  country  is 
rough  and  extremely  hilly  in  places.  Farming  is  carried 
on  extensively  toward  the  western  county  line  and  in  the 
southwest.  The  northwestern  portion  extending  into  Frank- 
lin County  is  heavily  timbered  with  mixed  pine  and  some 
hardwoods.  This  is  in  the  hands  of  large  companies. 

There  are  over  thirty  small  mills  in  the  county  cutting 
lumber,  mostly  for  local  use.  Some  hardwoods  are  being 
cut  for  foreign  export.  There  is  very  little  hardwood  re- 
maining in  the  county  outside  the  northwest  section.  Tur- 
pentining is  carried  on  to  some  extent  east  of  Gillsburg. 

On  the  longleaf  uplands,  areas  cut  over  several  years 
ago,  often  containing  1,000  to  3,000  board  feet  of  timber 
per  acre,  can  be  bought  for  $5  per  acre.  Small  mill  owners 
often  buy  these  areas  from  the  big  companies.  This  county 
is  being  rapidly  stripped  of  its  timber,  and  the  largest  com- 
panies will  cut  their  supply  in  a comparatively  few  years. 


26 


A STUDY  OF  FOREST  CONDITIONS 


Tie  cutting  is  general.  In  the  east  the  ties  are  largely 
disposed  of  to  the  Liberty  White  Railroad,  and  in  the  west 
they  are  hauled  to  the  line  of  the  Yazoo  & Mississippi  Valley 
Railroad.  Most  of  the  county  is  accessible  to  one  or  the 
other  of  these  railroads. 

The  county  shows  considerable  interest  in  the  care  of 
its  school  lands.  Most  of  the  timber  on  the  sixteenth  sec- 
tions was  cut  many  years  ago,  when  pine  was  considered 
valueless  and  its  removal  a benefit.  These  old  cuttings  are 
past  redemption  now,  but  where  school  timber  still  re- 
mains it  is  being  preserved.  Three  recent  cases  are  reported 
where  the  county  has  been  reimbursed  for  timber  removed 
on  rented  lands.  Eight  townships  in  this  county  are  receiv- 
ing money  from  their  school  lands. 

Wilkinson  County. — Wilkinson  County,  with  an  area  of 
a little  more  than  400,000  acres,  occupies  the  extreme  south- 
western corner  of  the  State.  It  is  essentially  an* agricultural 
county,  63  per  cent  of  the  land  being  listed  as  cleared.  All 
types  but  the  pure  longleaf,  which  does  not  extend  as  far 
west  as  this  county,  are  represented.  The  longleaf  hills 
type  covers  the  northeast  corner  of  the  county  north  of 
Buffalo  bayou.  The  stand  on  this  type  averages  5,000  to 
7,000  feet  per  acre.  The  soil  is  not  as  fertile  as  that  in 
the  other  parts  of  the  county,  and  the  hills,  though  short, 
are  steep  and  liable  to  wash,  so  that  the  greater  part  of 
this  area  is  more  suitable  for  forest  growth  than  for  any 
other  purpose.  Longleaf  pine  is  the  principal  timber  tree, 
though  in  some  areas,  especially  near  the  railroad  on  the 
eastern  boundary,  most  of  this  species  has  been  cut  out, 
leaving  loblolly  and  some  shortleaf  the  predominating  trees. 
Where  fire  has  not  passed  over  the  ground  lately,  the  re- 
production of  loblolly  and  shortleaf  is  excellent,  and  on 
some  old  cuttings  longleaf  also  is  reproduucing  very  satis- 
factorily. It  is  probable,  therefore,  that  with  careful  man- 
agement no  trouble  would  be  experienced  in  keeping  any 
part  of  this  corner  of  the  county  in  a permanently  producing 
forest. 

The  greater  paft  of  the  county  is  covered  with  the  hard- 
wood hills  type.  In  the  western  half  of  the  county  the 
hardwoods  are  in  almost  pure  stands,  while  in  the  eastern 


OF  SOUTHWESTERN  MISSISSIPPI. 


27 


part  they  are  mixed  with  loblolly  and  some  shortleaf  pine. 
The  land  produces  excellent  crops  of  cotton,  so  that  only  the 
steep  slopes  from  which  the  soil  will  wash  away,  if  cleared, 
should  be  kept  in  permanent  forest  growth.  The  trees  to  be 
encouraged  are  yellow  poplar,  ash,  hickory  and  sweet  gum. 

On  the  Mississippi  flood  plain,  and  on  the  river  and  creek 
bottoms,  the  only  land  more  suitable  for  forest  growth  than 
for  agriculture  is  that  which  is  too  wet  to  cultivate.  It  will 
eventually  be  drained  and  put  to  its  highest  use,  but  in  the 
meantime  it  should  be  kept  in  forest  and  the  young  growth 
protected  when  the  mature  timber  is  cut. 

Lumbering  has  not  been  carried  on  extensively  in  Wil- 
kinson County,  and  practically  all  the  lumber  cut  has  been 
for  local  use,  except  on  the  Mississippi  bottoms,  where  it 
has  been  floated  or  shipped  on  the  river.  One  line  of  rail- 
road enters  the  county,  a branch  of  the  Yazoo  & Mississippi 
Valley  Railroad  coming  up  to  Woodville.  Along  this 
branch,  and  near  the  eastern  border  of  the  county  close  to 
the  main  line,  ties  are  being  cut  in  considerable  quantities, 
mostly  from  loblolly.  The  production  of  white  oak  staves 
has  for  some  years  been  the  largest  lumber  industry  in  the 
county,  but  now  there  is  little  accessible  timber  left  suitable 
for  this  purpose. 

Adams  County. — The  eastern  part  of  Adams  County  is 
rough  and  hilly,  and  characterized  by  the  steep  ridges  and 
narrow  ravines  of  the  hardwood  hills  type.  To  the  west 
the  land  becomes  more  rolling,  cut  by  deep  ravines  and 
marked  by  excessive  erosion.  Bordering  the  Mississippi 
River  the  general  level  of  the  land  drops  abruptly  to  the 
bottomlands  by  a range  of  steep  hills,  or  ‘‘cliffs,”  extending 
through  the  county.  The  overflowed  Mississippi  bottoms 
are  chiefly  in  the  southwest  part  of  the  county  where  the 
river  backs  up  into  the  Homochitto  River  and  floods  large 
areas,  sometimes  during  the  entire  year.  The  soil  of  the 
county  is  everywhere  influenced  by  the  silt  or  loess  loams 
which  increase  in  depth  near  the  cliffs.  Alluvial  soil  occu- 
pies the  area  between  the  cliffs  and  the  Mississippi. 

Much  of  the  hill  section  of  the  county  is  still  heavily 
timbered  with  pine  and  hardwoods.  The  difficulty  of  log- 
ging the  inaccessible  ravines  and  ridges  has  thus  far  pre- 


28 


A STUDY  OF  FOREST  CONDITIONS 


vented  lumbering,  except  for  selected  logs  for  export.  West 
of  the  hill  section,  once  entirely  hardwoods,  the  county  has 
been  largely  cleared  and  cultivatd.  Immense  plantations 
are  common  surrounding  Natchez,  and  much  of  this  land 
is  without  much  tree  growth.  Old  field  pine,  however,  as 
elsewhere  on  similar  lands,  takes  possession  of  abandoned 
fields.  The  bottomlands  along  the  Mississippi  are  either 
in  cultivation  or  occupied  by  stands  of  cottonwood,  oak, 
gum  and  other  hardwoods.  Throughout  the  Homochitto 
overflowed  lands,  there  are  still  some  splendid  bottom-land 
forests  of  cypress,  gums  and  oak.  A considerable  amount 
of  this  type  has  been  cultivated  and  many  of  the  forests 
culled  of  their  best  timber.  At  present  29,000  acres  along 
the  Homochitto  River  are  being  drained  for  cultivation. 
Approximately  132,000  acres,  or  half  the  area  of  the  county, 
is  listed  as  cleared  land.  The  uncleared  land  is  confined  to 
the  eastern  hills  and  the  river  bottoms.  The  assessment 
of  the  best  agricultural  land  is  sometimes  as  high  as  $33 
per  acre,  with  an  average  of  $10.  The  uncleared  land 
ranges  from  50  cents  to  $7,  with  an  average  of  about  $5. 

The  timber  of  the  hills  type  is  mostly  owned  by  a few 
companies,  two  of  which  are  about  to  begin  extensive 
operations.  The  merchantable  trees,  both  hardwoods  and 
pines,  average  about  5,000  board  feet  per  acre.  Repro- 
duction is  excellent,  both  of  pine  and  hardwoods.  Lumber- 
ing is  being  carried  on  in  the  Homochitto  and  Mississippi 
bottomlands.  About  85,000  board  feet  of  cottonwood  lum- 
ber are  being  cut  daily  by  small  mills  along  the  Mississippi, 
besides  about  60,000  board  feet  of  logs  which  are  taken  from 
the  Homochitto  region  and  rafted  to  Louisiana.  Cypress 
and  gum  are  also  being  lumbered  from  the  bottoms.  The 
growth  of  cottonwood  is  extremely  rapid,  and  the  tree 
reaches  merchantable  size  in  from  15  to  25  years.  Many 
cottonwood  stands  will  cut  from  12,000  to  25,000  board  feet 
per  acre.  'Natchez  is  the  great  center  of  export  for  most 
products,  and  the  Mississippi  River  offers  the  cheapest  outlet 
for  lumber.  The  Mississippi  Central  Railroad,  when  com- 
pleted, will  facilitate  export  through  the  center  of  the 
county. 

It  is  estimated  that  85  per  cent  of  the  swamp  lands  are 
still  uncleared,  though  it  is  probable  that  all  eventually 


OF  SOUTHWESTERN  MISSISSIPPI. 


29 


will  be  cleared  for  agriculture.  The  steepest  parts  of  the 
hill  section  are  absolute  forest  land,  being  too  steep  ever 
to  become  available  extensively  for  farming.  The  remain- 
der of  the  county  will  always  be  more  valuable  for  agricul- 
tural purposes. 

Jefferson  County. — Except  for  the  extreme  southeastern 
part,  Jefferson  County  is  agricultural,  and  a large  part  of  it 
is  under  cultivation.  A high,  somewhat  broken  plateau 
extends  westward  into  the  county  and  is  occupied  by  mixed 
longleaf  and  shortleaf  pine.  This  longleaf  hills  type  quickly 
passes  into  the  hardwood  hills  type  as  the  land  becomes 
lower  and  more  level,  and  as  the  soil  becomes  influenced 
by  the  silty  loams.  The  section  west  of  the  longleaf  up- 
lands, which  comprises  practically  the  whole  county,  was 
originally  covered  with  hardwood  of  fine  quality,  much  of 
which  has  long  since  been  cleared.  A large  part  of  this 
section,  however,  has  grown  up  again  to  loblolly  and  short- 
leaf  pines.  Approximately  146,000  acres,  or  nearly  52  per 
cent  of  the  county,  is  classed  as  cleared  land.  The  assess- 
ment of  cleared  land  averages  $4.50  per  acre  and  uncleared 
land  $4. 

This  was  once  a region  of  magnificent  hardwoods,  but 
much  timber  was  cut  and  destroyed  in  clearing  the  land. 
Fifty  years  ago  the  whole  region,  except  the  swamps  and 
longleaf  uplands  at  the  extreme  southeast,  was  in  a thor- 
ough state  of  cultivation,  and  plantations  covering  thou- 
sands of  acres  were  common.  But  since  the  war  much  of 
the  land  has  grown  up  to  old  field  pine.  Reproduction  is 
prolific,  and  the  growth  exceedingly  rapid,  so  that  land 
once  cleared  but  not  now  actually  in  cultivation,  is  covered 
with  old  field  pine,  either  scattered  or  in  fairly  even 
stands.  The  average  stand  is  about  2,000  to  3,000  board 
feet  per  acre,  though  some  stands  exceed  10,000  board  feet. 
This  land  is  being  bought  up  by  lumbermen  and  others  for 
purposes  of  speculation. 

Small  mills  have  been  operating  for  many  years  where 
the  haul  to  the  railroad  is  not  too  long.  A great  develop- 
ment of  lumbering  is  about  to  take  place  in  eastern  Jefferson 
County,  with  the  opening  up  of  the  Mississippi  Central  Rail- 
road through  Franklin  County  and  a possible  branch  line 


30 


A STUDY  OF  FOREST  CONDITIONS 


into  Jefferson  County.  It  is  probable  that  within  a few 
years  lumber  companies  will  be  logging  extensively  through- 
out the  eastern  half  of  the  county.  Until  recently  there 
was  no  market  for  shortleaf  or  loblolly  pine,  but  with  the 
scarcity  of  longleaf  pine  and  the  consequent  rise  in  prices 
of  lumber,  practically  all  the  pines  will  be  extensively  logged 
in  the  future. 

The  only  longleaf  pine  in  this  county  is  in  the  two 
southeast  townships.  This  has  been  logged  in  a small 
way  and  the  lumber  hauled  to  McNair,  on  the  Yazoo  & 
Mississippi  Valley  Railroad,  about  twenty  miles  distant. 
The  tie  industry  is  important  along  the  railroad  lines.  Small 
tie  camps  are  established  near  good  stands  of  loblolly  and 
shortleaf  pine,  and  are  moved  whenever  the  adjacent  sup- 
ply is  exhausted.  Many  hardwood  logs  are  hauled  by  farm- 
ers to  the  railroads  and  shipped  to  New  Orleans  and  other 
points  for  special  manufacture  and  for  export. 

Though  the  county  is  essentially  agricultural,  there  is 
much  land  that  should  be  kept  permanently  in  forest.  Such 
land  would  include  the  longleaf  hills  type  and  any  other 
land  that  will  wash  badly  when  cleared.  Much  land  in  the 
hardwood  hills  type  is  very  steep,  and  washes  so  badly  when 
cleared  with  an  incident  loss  of  soil  and  fertility  that  it  has 
to  be  abandoned  in  a few  years  to  grow  up  to  pine  or  hard- 
woods. On  these  situations  the  better  quality  of  hardwoods, 
such  as  yellow  poplar,  ash,  hickory  and  oak,  should  be 
encouraged,  and  also  loblolly  where  it  is  abundant.  This 
timber,  in  time,  will  be  extremely  remunerative. 

Claiborne  County. — Claiborne,  with  a total  area  of  some- 
thing like  320,000  acres,  is  essentially  an  agricultural  county. 
Owing  to  its  situation  on  the  Mississippi  River,  settlement 
began  early,  and  now  probably  80  per  cent  of  the  area  is 
cleared.  A larger  proportion  of  the  cleared  land  is  being  reg- 
ularly cultivated  than  in  any  other  county  in  the  region. 
With  the  exception  of  a narrow  strip  of  overflow  land  along 
the  Mississippi  and  the  river  bottoms,  the  whole  of  Claiborne 
County  lies  within  the  hardwood  hills  type.  It  is  probable 
that  the  longleaf  type  at  one  time  reached  over  into  the 
southeast  comer  of  he  county,  but  with  the  clearing  of 
most  of  the  upland  and  the  increased  local  demand  for  lum- 
ber, practically  all  of  this  species  has  now  disappeared.  The 


OF  SOUTHWESTERN  MISSISSIPPI. 


31 


southern  and  central  part  of  the  county  is  comparatively 
level  or  rolling  and  has  been  well  cleared.  Old  field  pine, 
therefore,  forms  the  larger  part  of  the  present  forest  growth. 
To  the  north  of  Bayou  Pierre  and  extending  to  the  Big 
Black  River,  the  hills  are  steeper  and  the  country  more 
broken,  and  there  is  a larger  portion  of  forest  land. 

The  old  growth  forest  with  an  average  stand  of  about 

4.000  feet  per  acre  is  all  hardwood,  the  chief  species  being 
white  oak,  hickory,  yellow  poplar,  sweet  gum,  water  oak 
and  elm.  Occasionally  some  old  trees  of  loblolly  are  mixed 
with  the  hardwoods,  which,  together  with  the  second  growth 
shortleaf  and  loblolly  already  established,  furnish  seed  for 
the  reforestation  of  abandoned  fields.  The  hills  run  out 
so  close  to  the  rivers  both  north  and  west  that  there  is  a 
relatively  small  area  in  bottom-lands,  and  hence  there  is  very 
little  cottonwood.  Most  of  the  bottom-land  that  is  dry 
enough  has  been  cleared  for  agriculture. 

Local  lumbering  by  small  mills  does  not  exceed  an 
annual  cut  of  two  and  a half  million  feet — nearly  all  old  field 
pine.  An  average  stand  for  old  fields  will  not  run  over 

3.000  to  4,000  feet  per  acre.  An  average  stumpage  price 
for  second  growth  pine  is  about  $i  a thousand,  and  the 
product  sells  for  from  $io  to  $n  at  the  mill.  The  cutting 
and  shipping  of  hardwood  logs  for  export  is  the  largest 
timber  industry  of  the  county.  Many  carloads  go  out  each 
month  over  the  two  lines  of  railroad.  Nearly  the  entire 
county  is  accessible  to  either  rail  or  water  communication, 
and  at  the  present  rate  of  cutting  it  cannot  be  very  long 
before  all  the  export  timber  is  cut  out.  White  oak  staves 
are  being  cut  to  a considerable  extent,  and  good,  accessible 
stave  timber  is  becoming  scarce.  Stumpage  for  stave  wood 
runs  from  $i  to  $2  a cord,  and  a stand  of  i to  2 cords 
to  the  acre  is  considered  fair. 

The  only  land  in  this  county  which  can  profitably  be  kept 
in  permanent  forest  growth  is  that  too  steep  for  cultivation 
— the  land  which  is  now  furnishing  most  of  the  export  and 
stave  timber.  These  two  industries  demand  only  the  larger 
trees,  so  that,  as  a rule,  all  the  smaller  trees  are  left  stand- 
ing. With  proper  care  in  felling  the  timber  and  adequate 
protection  from  fire,  these  forests  should  yield  a sufficient 
supply  of  timber  for  all  local  needs. 


32 


A STUDY  OF  FOREST  CONDITIONS 


TIMBER  INDUSTRIES. 

Lumbering. — The  lumbering  of  yellow  pine  is  the  most 
extensive  forest  industry  in  the  State.  As  carried  on  by 
large  concerns,  it  involves  tremendous  outlays  for  mills, 
machinery,  railroad  lines,  locomotives  and  other  miscella- 
neous equipment,  besides  an  army  of  men.  In  1906  the  pro- 
duction of  yellow  pine  lumber  in  Mississippi  was  1,509,- 
554,000  feet,  the  total  value  of  which  was  $24,387,901.  Un- 
fortunately this  enormous  industry  is  rapidly  consuming  its 
capital,  the  standing  timber,  without  taking  any  steps  to 
insure  the  production  of  a second  crop.  With  the  decline 
of  the  industry  the  southern  part  of  Mississippi  will  grad- 
ually lose  the  most  important  of  its  present  sources  of 
wealth.  Agriculture  will  develop  as  the  country  becomes 
more  settled,  but  much  of  the  land  which  will  eventually 
be  used  for  farming  and  which  is  now  yielding  nothing,  can 
profitably  be  kept  in  forest  growth  for  many  years  to  come. 
Simple,  conservative  methods  of  forest  management,  such 
as  leaving  of  seed  trees  and  protection  from  fire,  would  un- 
doubtedly pay  the  owners  of  yellow  pine  lands.  The  large 
operations  are  confined  almost  entirely  to  the  pure  longleaf 
type.  Large  mills  are  located  only  on  important  lines  of 
railroad,  from  which  the  logging  railroads  or  tram  lines  are 
constructed  into  timber.  These  often  extend  25  miles  or 
more  from  the  mills. 

Choppers  are  paid  by  the  log  or  by  the  thousand  feet. 
The  logs  are  hauled  to  the  spurs  by  steam  skidders,  or,  if 
in  inaccessible  places,  by  team.  They  are  left  anywhere 
within  150  feet  of  the  railroad,  where  the  steam  loaders 
pick  them  up.  One  steam  skidder  and  one  loader  will 
usually  handle  about  forty  cars  of  logs  a day.  The  cost 
to  put  logs  at  the  mill  varies  from  $2  to  $4  per  1,000  B.  F., 
exclusive  of  stumpage,  divided  about  as  follows: 


Cutting  

$ 5° 

eg 

Hauling  

60 

1 30 

Loading  

20 

40 

Railroad  haul 

70 

1 50 

$2  00 


$4  00 


OF  SOUTHWESTERN  MISSISSIPPI. 


33 


The  cost  of  manufacturing  varies  according  to  the  size 
of  the  mill,  equipment,  etc.  Large  mills  can  manufacture 
more  cheaply  than  the  smaller  ones,  because  they  have 
equipment  for  utilizing  the  slabs  and  other  waste  in  shingles 
and  laths.  The  planing  mill  also  lessens  the  cost  by  saving 
weight  in  the  shipment  of  lumber.  Lumbering  by  small 
mills  often  necessitates  long  hauls  and  requires  a ready 
local  market.  Hundreds  of  such  mills  in  the  State  supply 
the  farmers  with  lumber  and  furnish  employment  for  many 
local  residents.  Undoubtedly  there  will  come  a time  when 
lumbering  will  be  on  a smaller  scale  than  at  present,  when 
small  stationary  or  portable  mills  will  be  used,  as  is  now 
the  case  in  many  other  parts  of  the  United  States. 

The  logging  of  extremely  rough  country  is  expensive, 
and  it  naturally  is  the  last  to  be  logged.  It  is  often  neces- 
sary to  make  long  hauls  with  mule  or  ox  teams,  and  opera- 
tions must  be  on  a relatively  small  scale.  With  such  con- 
ditions conservative  methods  are  most  easily  put  in  force, 
because  the  smaller  trees  will  often  not  pay  for  the  long 
haul,  and  the  absence  of  engines  in  logging  eliminates  the 
most  serious  cause  of  fire.  Methods  of  bottom-land  logging 
vary  with  the  location  of  the  mill.  In  some  cases,  as  with 
cottonwood  along  the  Mississippi,  the  logs  are  hauled  by 
team  to  the  banks  of  the  river,  where  the  mills  are  located. 
Sometimes  railroads  are  constructed  into  the  swamps  from 
the  river.  The  lumber  when  manufactured  is  shipped  in* 
barges  to  important  points,  as  Cairo,  Cincinnati  or  New 
Orleans. 

The  cost  of  cottonwood  lumbering  varies  about  as  fol- 


lows : 

Per  1,000  B.  F. 

Cutting  and  hauling  to  the  mill $3  50  to  $4  50 

Sawing  3 00  to  3 00 

Piling  and  loading  on  barge 50  to  1 00 


Total  $7  00  to  $8  50 


A certain  percentage  of  willow  is  often  cut  with  the 
cottonwood,  but  it  is  worth  considerably  less.  Willow 
stumpage  is  about  one-third  that  of  cottonwood,  which 
varies  from  $3  to  $5  a thousand  feet.  The  manufactured 


34 


A STUDY  OF  FOREST  CONDITIONS 


product  sells  for  $12  per  1,000  and  up,  loaded  on  the  barge. 

There  is  more  or  less  waste  of  wood  in  the  lops  and 
tops  in  all  cottonwood  operations,  which  might  be  very 
profitably  utilized  if  there  was  a market  for  pulpwood  near 
by.  Above  Memphis,  pulpwood  sells  for  $4.50  or  more  a 
cord.  A plant  for  the  manufacture  of  paper  pulp,  if 
erected  at  some  point  on  the  river  between  New  Orleans  and 
Memphis,  would  certainly  have  a large  supply  of  raw 
material  to  draw  from.  A good  market  would  thus  be 
created  for  valuable  material  that  is  now  wasted. 

Many  of  the  small  holders  of  timber-land  do  not  yet  real- 
ize the  value  of  stumpage,  treating  it  as  an  asset  like  coal 
or  iron,  which,  after  it  is  once  used  up,  is  gone  forever. 
Instead,  it  should  be  regarded  as  a crop  and  harvested  in 
such  a way  that  another  crop  would  be  assured.  In  selling 
standing  timber,  unless  the  intention  is  to  clear  up  the 
land  at  once  for  crops,  there  should  be  some  provision  for 
the  care  of  the  young  growth  of  the  valuable  species.  It  is 
a mistake  to  assume  that  timber  cannot  be  sold  unless  the 
buyer  is  allowed  to  cut  clean  if  he  so  desires.  There  is  very 
little  money  in  sawing  small  poles  below  say  10  or  12 
inches,  and  so  they  are  not  usually  cut  where  sold  by  the 
thousand  board  feet.  Where,  however,  timber  is  bought  by 
the  acre,  no  stumpage  charge  is  reckoned,  and  every  tree 
is  cut  which  will  yield  a profit  over  the  cost  of  manufactur- 
ing alone.  Cutting  restrictions,  providing  for  leaving  the 
young  growth,  have  been  insisted  on  in  several  sales  of 
timber  in  this  region,  and  there  is  no  reason  why  this 
should  not  be  done  in  every  sale. 

Turpentining. — Turpentining  should  go  hand  in  hand 
with  lumbering  longleaf  pine.  The  forest  should  be  so  man- 
aged that  trees  may  be  boxed  for  several  years  ahead  of  the 
logging.  Many  companies  have  never  turpentined  their 
pine,  because  they  were  not  sure  how  soon  it  would  be 
logged.  If  lumbering  follows  the  turpenting  too  quickly,  the 
cost  of  erecting  a still  and  boxing  the  trees  is  greater  than 
the  returns  warrant.  On  the  other  hand,  when  logging  does 
not  follow  the  turpentining,  the  boxed  trees  are  usually 
badly  injured  by  fire  and  often  blown  down,  so  turpentining 
is  most  profitable  when  it  can  be  started  three  or  four  years 
before  logging  begins. 


OF  SOUTHWESTERN  MISSISSIPPI. 


35 


The  Fernwood  Lumber  Company  turpentines  its  hold- 
ings about  Tylertown,  Pike  County.  There  are  also  stills 
located  in  the  northern  part  of  the  county  and  in  Amite 
County.  The  largest  operations  in  southwestern  Missis- 
sippi are  located  in  this  region.  The  cup  and  gutter  system 
is  used  extensively,  though  operators  complain  that  the  metal 
cups  and  gutters  corrode  and  cause  a discoloration  of  the 
resin,  which  reduces  its  grade.  Malicious  persons,  and  cat- 
tle, frequently  knock  off  the  cups.  Much  less  injury,  how- 
ever, is  done  to  the  trees  when  the  metal  cups  and  gutters 
are  used. 

While  the  injury  to  lumber,  which  often  results  in  lower- 
ing the  grade  of  certain  boards,  and  sometimes  in  butting 
off  the  first  logs,  is  considerable,  the  profits  from  turpen- 
tine orcharding,  in  conjunction  with  lumbering  operations, 
greatly  overbalances  the  loss  in  lumber. 

Tie  Production. — Tie  production  is  an  important  indus- 
try in  southwestern  Mississippi.  In  the  longleaf  belt,  heart 
pine  ties  have  been  cut  and  used  for  many  years,  and  many 
railroads  use  no  other  ties.  But  with  the  increase  in  the 
value  of  longleaf  timber  and  the  successful  treatment  of 
old  field  pine  with  creosote,  the  tie  industry  in  the  State  is 
taking  possession  of  the  old  field  areas  in  the  western  coun- 
ties, where  the  hauls  to  the  railroad  do  not  exceed  four 
or  five  miles. 

Loblolly  and  shortleaf  pines  are  the  principal  trees  used 
for  ties  in  this  section,  though  occasionally  hardwoods  of 
nearly  every  species  are  cut  also.  Timber  for  this  purpose 
is  largely  second  growth,  since  old  growth  is,  for  the  most 
part,  too  far  from  the  railroad  to  be  cut  into  ties,  and  where 
close,  it  is  usually  too  valuable  for  lumber.  In  good  bodies 
of  old  field  pine  250  ties  per  acre  can  be  obtained,  but  from 
the  immature  stands,  such  as  are  usually  cut,  a yield  of  50 
to  100  ties  per  acre  is  more  common.  Probably  more  ties 
are  now  being  sawed  and  hewed,  and  the  proportion  of 
sawed  ties  will  no  doubt  increase  owing  to  the  adaptation 
of  sawmill  machinery  to  this  special  work,  thereby  cheap- 


36 


A STUDY  OF  FOREST  CONDITIONS 


ening  the  cost  of  production.  At  present,  however,  the  two 
methods  cost  about  the  same,  as  follows: 

Per  Tie. 

Stumpage  2 to  4 cents. 

Cutting  and  making 12  to  13  cents. 

Hauling  to  railroad 3 to  5 cents. 

17  22 

The  price  per  tie  delivered  along  the  right  of  way  ranges 
from  24  to  28  cents.  At  this  price  the  tie-men  are  only  get- 
ting about  $8.00  per  M.  board  feet  for  their  lumber,  and 
the  owners  of  the  timber  only  from  50  cents  to  $1.00  per 
M.  for  stumpage.  This  is  too  low,  and  timberland  owners 
should  realize  that  old  field  pine  has  a greater  value,  and  is 
not,  as  so  many  people  seem  to  think,  a tree  of  no  value  or 
even  a hindrance  to  the  development  of  the  country.  The 
waste  incident  to  this  industry  is  very  great.  In  Bulletin 
64*  of  the  Forest  Service,  United  States  Department  of 
Agriculture,  the  two  methods  of  tie-making  are  compared, 
and  its  conclusions  apply  to  conditions  in  southern  Missis- 
sippi. In  the  regular  tie  mills,  logs  are  cut  single-tie 
lengths,  and  this  practice  makes  the  “siding,”  which  is  cut 
off  in  the  manufacture  of  the  ties,  so  short  that  there  is 
very  little  market  for  it  at  present.  At  some  mills  the  best 
of  it  is  cut  off  and  sold  locally  at  $5.00  per  M.,  but  more 
often  it  is  all  thrown  away  in  the  slab  because  there  is  no 
market  for  it  even  at  this  low  figure.  Siding  is  cut  from 
the  best  part  of  the  log  and  ought  to  make  excellent  ceiling 
or  sheathing.  It  should  make  good  boxboard  material  and 
could  no  doubt  be  used  for  this  purpose  if  freight  rates  to 
the  larger  markets  would  justify  it.  As  long  as  there  is 
this  waste,  it  will  probably  pay  owners  of  old  field  pine 
to  hold  their  timber  until  better  prices  are  assured  and 
more  conservative  methods  are  thereby  justified. 

Hardwood  Logs  for  Export. — The  export  of  hardwood 
logs  is  quite  extensive  in  the  Mississippi  River  counties, 
where  old  growth  yellow  poplar,  hickory,  ash  and  white 
oak  are  within  hauling  distance  of  the  railroads.  The  best 

* Loblolly  pine  in  Eastern  Texas,  with  Special  Reference  to  the 
Production  of  Railroad  Ties,  pp  40  and  42.. 


OF  SOUTHWESTERN  MISSISSIPPI. 


37 


of  this  material  goes  to  New  Orleans,  and  is  there  shipped 
to  Europe  for  veneer  and  other  purposes.  Most  of  the 
merchantable  hardwoods  now  left  in  this  region  are  in  the 
steeper,  more  inaccessible  places.  The  usual  method  is  to 
pull  the  logs  to  the  tops  of  the  small  ridges  by  means  of  a 
portable  steam  skidder  or  by  block  and  tackle  with  teams. 
Wagons  then  haul  the  logs  directly  to  the  point  of  railroad 
shipment.  They  are  now  hauled  with  profit  as  far  as  eight 
or  ten  miles.  At  the  station  the  ends  of  the  logs  are  painted 
to  prevent  checking,  and  the  bark  peeled  from  all  species 
but  hickory  to  prevent  mildew  or  other  injury  to  the  sap- 
wood.  Yellow  poplar,  ash,  hickory  and  white  oak  are  the 
chief  species  exported,  though  much  of  the  white  oak  of 
export  quality  has  been,  and  still  is,  taken  out  for  staves. 
Usually  the  soil  in  which  the  hardwoods  grow  is  suited  to 
agriculture,  but  the  rough  character  of  the  ground  makes 
its  use  for  this  purpose  difficult.  When  cleared,  this  land 
usually  washes  away  rapidly,  so  that  in  spite  of  the  good 
quality  of  the  soil  it  will  in  many  cases  pay  better  to  keep 
the  areas  permanently  in  forest.  This  should  be  profitable, 
because  only  the  larger  timber  is  taken,  and  fire  may  easily 
be  prevented.  Owners  of  this  land,  in  selling  timber,  should 
stipulate  that  no  young  trees  of  valuable  species  should  be 
cut,  that  all  unnecessary  injury  to  young  timber  shall  be 
prevented,  and  that  fires  shall  be  kept  out. 

Besides  large  logs,  other  wood  materials  for  various 
uses  are  exported.  Dogwood  and  holly  for  bobbins,  turnery 
and  inlaid  work  are  exported  where  a sufficient  number  of 
cords  can  be  collected  in  one  place  to  fill  a car,  for  which 
from  $6.00  to  $8.00  a cord  is  obtained  at  the  railroad. 
Persimmon  for  reels,  bobbins  and  golf  sticks  is  shipped  in 
small  amounts  at  $5.50  to  $6.00  per  cord  along  the  Mis- 
sissippi River,  and  sassafras  for  boat  construction  is  fre- 
quently shipped  to  Michigan. 

Stave  Production. — Stave  production  has  been  a large, 
though  scattered,  industry  for  many  years.  Large  quanti- 
ties of  split  pipe  staves,  5 feet  long  and  over,  have  been 
taken  out  in  the  past,  but  the  supply  of  timber  suitable  for 
this  material  is  now  practically  exhausted.  At  present  only 
the  short  staves  are  made,  the  longest  being  about  36  inches, 
and  the  production  of  these  is  constantly  diminishing. 


38 


A STUDY  OF  FOREST  CONDITIONS 


White  oak  is  used  principally  for  staves,  but  red  oak 
is  cut  out  to  some  extent,  especially  into  oil  staves.  Willow 
and  cottonwood  are  occasionally  used,  although  they  are 
too  valuable  for  lumber  to  warrant  their  extensive  use  for 
this  purpose  at  the  present  prices.  Oak  trees  fit  for  staves 
are  very  scattered,  there  being  rarely  more  than  one  or  two 
per  acre,  even  in  good  hardwood  stands.  Much  of  the  timber 
is  defective,  and  among  the  trees  that  are  cut  only  a small 
part  can  be  actually  used,  because  of  knots  and  blemishes. 
Most  of  the  staves  are  produced  in  Wilkinson  and  Claiborne 
Counties ; the  former  furnishes  beer  staves  mainly,  which  go 
to  New  Orleans;  the  latter  whiskey,  oil  and  turpentine 
staves,  which  go  to  Louisville  and  other  Northern  and  East- 
ern markets. 

Stave  mills  are  portable  or  semi-portable.  In  some  cases 
they  are  set  up  in  the  center  of  a good  supply,  where  they 
depend  largely  on  farmers  to  bring  them  timber  in  the  form 
of  bolts.  In  other  cases,  a tract  of  timber  is  bought  and 
exploited  by  the  millmen  themselves.  Stumpage  prices  vary 
from  $2.00  per  cord  upward,  according  to  the  size  and 
quality  of  the  timber.  These  prices  are  equivalent  in  board 
measure  to  from  $2.00  to  $2.50  per  M.  For  the  quality  of 
the  timber  demanded,  this  price  seems  low,  although  it  is 
doubtful  whether  the  owners  at  the  present  time  would 
realize  any  more  for  their  timber  if  the  logs  were  sold  for 
export.  As  timber  suitable  for  staves  is  nearly  always 
mature  or  overmature,  its  removal  should  beenfit  the  forest, 
and  this  will  certainly  be  the  case  where  the  young  growth 
of  the  valuable  species  is  protected  and  encouraged.  The 
mature  trees  of  the  other  species  should  be  disposd  of 
as  soon  as  there  is  a market  for  them,  otherwise  the  less 
valuable  species  will  be  favored  by  a preponderance  of  seed 
trees  and  by  a suppression  of  the  most  valuable  young 
growth  by  the  old  trees. 

The  future  of  the  stave  industry  cannot  be  foretold. 
The  supply  of  timber  of  the  size  and  quality  now  required 
cannot  last  very  long.  White  oak  grows  comparatively 
slowly,  and  cannot  attain  large  sizes  rapidly  enough  to 
make  its  use  for  staves  alone  profitable.  There  is  no 
doubt,  however,  that  unless  substitutes  are  found,  smaller 


OF  SOUTHWESTERN  MISSISSIPPI. 


39 


trees  will  have  to  be  used  in  the  future.  Higher  prices  will 
then  be  paid  for  stumpage,  and  white  oak  will  be  a most 
profitable  tree  to  grow. 

MANAGEMENT. 

The  present  methods  of  handling  the  forest  lands  of  this 
region  are  wasteful  and  destructive,  and  little  or  no  pro- 
vision is  made  for  their  future  care  and  usefulness.  This  is 
especially  true  of  the  longleaf  pine  areas.  Township  after 
township  has  been  cut  over  and  burnt  until  there  is  practi- 
cally no  pine  left  standing  on  the  ground,  and  a useless 
growth  of  scrub  oak  takes  the  place  of  valuable  pine  forest. 
The  only  hope  for  such  land  is  the  expensive  process  of 
reseeding  or  planting.  The  forests  that  are  not  already 
cutover  should  be  so  lumbered  that  the  mature  timber  will 
be  harvested  with  the  least  possible  waste.  The  land  will 
then  continue  to  yield  the  largest  amount  of  timber  of  the 
highest  value. 

Conservative  lumbering  consists  of  two  fairly  distinct 
operations,  namely,  the  proper  selection  and  complete  utiliza- 
tion of  the  trees  cut,  and  the  proper  protection  and  care  of 
those  left  standing.  Conservative  lumbering  is  an  invest- 
ment. A certain  amount  of  timber  is  left  on  the  ground  in 
order  to  increase  the  future  value  of  the  property.  By  leav- 
ing from  500  to  1,000  board  feet  of  thrifty,  immature  trees, 
and  cutting  off  the  mature  timber,  a stand  which  is  growing 
rapidly  and  adding  volume  at  an  increasing  rate  per  year 
is  substituted  for  one  which  decays  as  fast  as  it  adds  volume, 
because  mature. 

Cutting  by  Types. — The  future  usefulness  of  a forest 
depends  in  a large  measure  on  the  way  the  present  crop  of 
timber  is  removed.  The  selection  of  trees  to  be  reserved 
to  seed  up  the  area,  and  the  reservation  of  young  growths 
now  on  the  ground  to  form  the  basis  for  the  next  crop  of 
timber  are  two  of  the  most  important  considerations  in 
forest  management,  and  require  the  exercise  of  great  care 
and  judgment.  The  selection  of  seed  trees  should  be  made 
before  cutting  commences.  As  these  trees  are  to  seed  the 
area  after  the  mature  timber  has  been  removed,  they  should 
be  in  such  a position  that  an  even  reproduction  is  secured 


40 


A STUDY  OF  FOREST  CONDITIONS 


in  the  shortest  possible  time.  The  number  of  seed  trees 
needed  depends  on  the  size  and  kind  of  trees  and  on  the  lay 
of  the  land.  An  ideal  yellow  pine  seed  tree  is  a young, 
barely  mature  tree  with  a full  pyramidal  crown  coming  well 
down  to  the  stem,  so  that  there  is  a large  twig  surface  for 
seed  bearing.  It  should  have  a straight,  tall  trunk,  and  a 
strong,  well-developed  root  system,  so  that  it  will  not  be 
thrown  by  the  wind.  Trees  15  to  20  inches  in  diameter  are 
usually  better  than  larger  ones.  Trees  even  smaller  can  be 
used  for  seed,  but  more  of  them  are  required. 

Pure  Longleaf  Type. — It  is  known  from  experience 
that  under  present  methods  the  longleaf  pine  forests  are 
not  being  and  cannot  be  perpetuated.  It  is  also  known 
that  under  natural  conditions  these  forests  have  been  re- 
producing themselves  up  to  the  present  time.  It  is  impos- 
sible to  lumber  a tract  and  not  change  the  forest  conditions 
in  some  way.  The  slighter  the  change  from  natural  condi- 
tions, however,  the  more  likelihood  is  there  of  reproducing 
a forest.  The  prevention  of  fires,  the  exclusion  of  hogs,  and 
the  leaving  of  seed  trees  are  essential  to  reproduction,  and 
these  things  can  be  brought  about  if  proper  precautions  are 
taken.  Other  influences  which  probably  deter  longleaf  re»- 
production  are  the  presence  of  oak  brush,  the  formation  of 
a dense  turf,  and  the  change  in  the  mechanical  condition 
and  moisture  content  of  the  soil.  These  influences  are  not 
so  well  understood,  and  study  and  experiment  will  be  neces- 
sary before  their  full  effects  can  be  determined. 

The  selection  of  seed  trees  and  the  amount  of  young 
growth  which  should  be  retained  will  vary  according  to  the 
nature  of  the  stand,  even  within  one  type.  Much  of  the 
longleaf  pine  occurs  in  pure  stands  of  mature  timber  with 
little  or  no  young  growth  or  reproduction.  In  such  stands 
mature  seed  trees  should  be  left,  but  it  is  a question  whether 
as  little  timber  as  possible  should  be  left  standing,  or 
whether  enough  should  be  left  to  justify  a second  lumbering 
in  fifteen  or  twenty  years*  time  when  a good  stand  of  repro- 
duction has  been  secured.  This  will  depend  to  a large  extent 
on  present  and  prospective  transportation  facilities,  and  on 
the  nature  of  the  stand.  Three  methods  of  cutting  are  here 
given,  all  of  which  can  be  modified  to  suit  local  conditions. 


OF  SOUTHWESTERN  MISSISSIPPI. 


41 


They  may  be  called  the  selection,  the  seed  tree,  and  the 
strip  methods. 

The  Selection  Method  is  most  practical  on  areas  where 
there  is  any  young  growth  of  pine.  This  contemplates  the 
selection  of  the  mature  timber  only  for  cutting.  The  thrifty, 
immature  timber,  often  called  “sap  pine,”-  should  not  be  cut, 
because  it  is  growing  and  increasing  rapidly  in  value.  The 
larger  sap  pines,  say  from  12  to  15  inches,  will  be  seed 
trees,  and  with  the  smkller  ones,  will  form  the  basis  of  a 
second  crop.  At  least  six  seed  trees  should  be  left  to  each 
acre,  even  if  mature  trees  have  to  be  reserved  to  make  up 
any  deficiency  in  immature  trees.  All  suppressed,  crooked, 
forked  or  otherwise  defective  trees  should  be  cut  out  with 
the  mature  timber,  as  these  are  unprofitable  trees  to  leave 
for  future  growth.  In  some  cases,  however,  where  there 
are  no  better  seed  trees  available,  such  trees  may  be  left 
for  this  purpose.  The  young  timber  that  is  left  to  grow 
would,  if  cut,  make  lumber  of  the  lower  grades  and  would 
be  the  most  expensive  to  log  and  saw.  Therefore,  the  in- 
vestment involved  in  this  method  is  much  smaller  than  one 
would  at  first  imagine. 

In  many  stands  the  young  growth  and  the  reproduction 
are  chiefly  in  groups,  having  come  up  in  openings  where 
trees  have  died  or  been  thrown  by  the  wind.  These  groups 
as  a rule,  should  not  be  thinned,  because  in  taking  out  the 
larger  trees  from  such  groups,  the  faster-growing  trees, 
or  those  with  the  greatest  promise  of  future  value,  are 
removed,  and  the  suppressed  and  slow-growing  trees  are 
left.  If  a use  can  be  found  for  these  slow-growing  trees 
some  of  them  may  be  cut  out  to  advantage,  but  care  should 
be  taken  not  to  open  up  the  groups  too  much.  If  the 

groups  consist  mostly  of  small  trees,  with  only  a few  of 
the  larger  sizes  scattered  here  and  there,  the  latter  may 
sometimes  be  cut  out  to  advantage ; the  groups  would  then 
consist  of  trees  of  more  even  size,  and  more  trees  might 
reach  a useful  maturity.  In  such  a stand  there  is  need 
for  seed  trees  scattered  well  between  the  groups,  as  in  other 
variations  of  this  type. 

The  Seed  Tree  Method  is  suited  to  mature  stands  of 
longleaf  where  there  is  little  or  no  reproduction  or  young 


42 


A STUDY  OF  FOREST  CONDITIONS 


growth  on  the  ground.  In  such  cases  the  sole  dependence 
for  the  future  forest  is  on  the  seed  trees  that  are  left.  These 
should,  therefore,  be  chosen  with  great  care,  Four  to  six 
trees  per  acre  should  be  left,  distributed  as  evenly  as  possible 
over  the  acre.  The  rest  of  the  timber  may  be  removed. 

Seed  trees  should  be  sound  and  healthy,  so  that  in  fif- 
teen or  twenty  years  they  will  have  increased  instead  of 
depreciated  in  value,  for  by  that  time  it  will  probably  pay  to 
lumber  the  area  again  for  the  seed  trees.  The  chief  objec- 
tion to  this  method  is  the  very  serious  risk  of  the  seed  trees 
being  wind-thrown.  Storms  are  very  severe  in  this  region, 
and  when  the  trees  are  blown  down,  there  is  not  only  serious 
loss  of  timber,  but  also  the  only  chance  of  reseeding  the 
ground  is  gone. 

The  Strip  Method  is  used  to  a large  extent  in  Europe 
and  has  also  been  used  with  modifications  in  some  of  our 
national  forests.  It  seems  admirably  adapted  to  certain 
conditions  in  the  southern  pineries,  wherever  the  ground  is 
level  enough  for  a railroad.  Especially  in  mature  stands 
with  no  young  growth,  this  method  could  be  used  to  ad- 
vantage. In  such  situations  it  is  now  customary  to  locate 
railroad  spurs  about  Y mile  apart  and  skid  the  logs  in 
from  each  side.  In  the  strip  method  the  spurs  should  be 
located  as  they  are  at  present,  but  the  trees  should  be  cut 
from  only  half  the  area,  thus  leaving  strips  of  forest  alter- 
nating with  the  strips  of  cutover  land  of  equal  width.  The 
cutover  strips  should  be  logged  clean,  with  the  expectation 
that  young  growth  will  start  up  from  seeds  from  the  strips 
of  forest  land  on  either  side.  When  a sufficiently  dense 
stand  of  reproduction  is  secured  and  the  young  trees  have 
begun  to  bear  seed,  in  fifteen  to  twenty-five  years5  time,  the 
remaining  strips  should  be  lumbered  in  the  same  way,  when 
the  area  would  in  turn  be  seeded  from  the  young  trees. 
The  advantages  of  this  method  are:  the  stand  can  be  cut 
clean,  the  trees  left  in  the  strips  will  be  less  likely  to  be 
wind-thrown,  and  the  cost  of  the  second  cutting  will  not 
exceed  the  cost  of  the  first.  The  cost  of  logging  will  be 
lessened,  as  the  logs  will  be  skidded  only  half  the  distance, 
but  this  may  be  counterbalanced  in  certain  cases  by  the 
increased  cost  of  spur  construction  per  1,000  feet  of  timber 


OF  SOUTHWESTERN  MISSISSIPPI. 


43 


logged.  The  chief  objection  is  that  so  much  timber  must 
be  left  for  the  second  crop. 

Loblolly  and  Longleaf  Subtype. — In  this  type  loblolly 
pine  should  be  encouraged  in  every  way  possible,  the  object 
being  to  substitute  this  rapid-growing  tree  for  the  slower 
growing  longleaf  on  all  suitable  areas.  Wherever  there  is 
any  young  growth  the  selection  method  of  cutting  should  be 
practiced,  leaving  all  young,  rapidly-growing  trees  on  the 
ground.  This  is  advisable,  because  young  loblolly  pine 
grown  in  an  open  stand  makes  a poor  quality  of  lumber. 
It  produces  good  lumber  only  when  grown  in  a dense  stand, 
and  it  will  grow  this  way  only  if  fire  is  kept  out.  Where 
three  or  four  well-distributed  seed  trees  per  acre  of  loblolly 
can  be  secured,  no  longleaf  seed  trees  need  be  left.  The 
seeds  of  the  loblolly  being  much  lighter  than  those  of  the 
longleaf,  are  scattered  farther  by  the  wind,  and  seed  years 
being  so  much  more  frequent,  fewer  seed  trees  are  neces- 
sary. 

In  all  types  which  contain  longleaf,  considerable  fore- 
sight is  necessary  where  turpentining  is  practiced.  This 
operation  usually  commences  three  or  four  years  ahead  of 
the  lumbering,  in  order  to  include  the  most  profitable  period 
for  boxing  the  trees.  Trees  necessary  for  seed  trees  and  all 
second  growth  that  is  to  be  left  should  be  selected  before 
turpentining  begins,  or  else  a diameter  limit  should  be  set 
large  enough  to  include  the  trees  to  be  saved.  These  trees 
should  not  be  boxed  or  tapped  for  turpentine,  for  other- 
wise their  value  will  be  impaired.  It  is  best  to  mark  the 
trees  to  be  removed  in  the  lumbering  which  will  follow,  and 
allow  only  the  trees  so  marked  to  be  boxed. 

Longleaf  Hills  Type. — In  this  type  there  is  the  same 
necessity  and  perhaps  a greater  opportunity  for  conserva- 
tive management  of  forests  than  in  any  other.  Considera- 
ble areas  of  the  type  are  still  in  an  almost  virgin  state,  and 
owing  to  the  steepness  of  the  hills  and  the  consequent  dan- 
ger from  erosion,  and  the  general  unsuitability  of  much  of 
the  soil  for  agricultural  purposes,  they  should  be  kept  in 
a thrifty  and  profitable  forest  growth.  The  three  commer- 
cial yellow  pines — longleaf,  shortleaf  and  loblolly — grow 
well,  and  reproduction,  especially  of  shortleaf  and  loblolly, 


44 


A STUDY  OF  FOREST  CONDITIONS 


is  assured  if  fire  is  kept  out  and  proper  provision  made  for 
seed  trees.  The  chief  aim  should  be  to  reproduce  a mixture 
of  loblolly  and  shortleaf,  with  a preference  to  the  former 
because  of  its  more  rapid  growth.  The  longleaf  is  a poorer 
seeder,  grows  more  slowly,  and  seems  to  be  gradually  giving 
way  to  its  more  vigorous  competitors.  In  the  hardwood 
hollows  loblolly  usually  reproduces  successfully.  The  more 
valuable  hardwoods,  as  yellow  poplar,  ash  and  hickory, 
should  be  favored  against  all  other  trees  but  loblolly  pine 
by  leaving  seed  trees  and  protecting  the  young  growth. 

Young  growth  of  pine  is  much  more  frequent  in  these 
hills  than  it  is  over  most  of  the  pure  longleaf  area,  and  so 
the  selection  method  of  cutting,  already  described,  should 
be  practiced  in  most  cases.  As  much  immature  pine  as 
possible  should  be  left  on  the  ground,  in  order  that  it  may 
have  the  advantage  in  the  struggle  with  the  poorer  species 
of  hardwood.  In  selecting  seed  trees,  shortleaf  should  be 
preferred  to  longleaf,  since  it  grows  faster  and  forms 
denser  stands.  Loblolly,  however,  in  all  situations  favor- 
able to  its  growth,  is  a more  desirable  tree  than  either. 
Young  growth  of  all  species  should  be  left,  not  only  to 
form  the  basis  of  a second  crop,  but  to  prevent  erosion. 

Hardwood  Hills  Type. — A considerable  part  of  this  type 
is  still  in  the  forest,  and  on  account  of  the  steepness  and 
general  unsuitability  of  much  of  it  for  cultivation,  it  should 
be  used  permanently  for  the  growth  of  trees.  Of  course, 
with  improved  methods  of  farming  and  a denser  population 
more  land  will  be  cleared  and  cultivated,  but  in  all  agricul- 
tural regions  at  least  a part  of  the  land  should  be  used  for 
the  production  of  cordwood,  posts,  poles  and  lumber  for 
local  needs.  The  steep  hillsides  and  narrow  ravines  found 
throughout  this  type  are  better  adapted  to  this  purpose  than 
to  any  other.  The  deep,  fine,  silty  soil  begins  to  wash  badly 
as  soon  as  cultivation  is  attempted,  and  under  ordinary 
circumstances  the  steep  slopes  have  to  be  abandoned  in  a 
very  few  years.  A mixed  growth,  usually  of  very  inferior 
quality,  gradually  takes  possession  of  these  areas,  but  the 
erosion  goes  on  until  the  under  clay  is  reached,  often  50  to 
100  feet  below.  Such  land  should  never  be  cleared,  but 
should  be  kept  in  a thrifty  growth  of  timber,  and  made  to 


OF  SOUTHWESTERN  MISSISSIPPI. 


45 


yield,  by  wise  management,  the  greatest  possible  returns 
as  a long  time  investment.  The  soil  being  rich  and  the 
moisture  conditions  generally  good,  tree  growth  is  rapid, 
and  where  the  better  species  are  encouraged,  the  owner 
might  expect  returns  in  a comparativly  short  period. 

In  cutting  these  mixed  stands  of  trees  of  all  ages  the 
selection  system  is  by  far  the  most  practical.  The  old, 
mature  and  overmature  trees  should  be  removed,  leaving 
the  young,  thrifty,  immature  saplings  and  poles  with  plenty 
of  room  to  grow  and  develop.  If  possible,  the  less  valuable 
species  should  be  removed  with  the  better  kinds,  for  other- 
wise the  quality  of  the  forest  will  have  a tendency  to  dete- 
riorate. Seed  trees  of  yellow  poplar,  ash,  walnut,  hickory 
and  white  oak  should  be  saved  wherever  there  are  not 
sufficient  young  trees  of  these  species  to  secure  a second 
growth.  If  these  seed  trees  are  retained,  with  proper  care, 
each  succeeding  crop  of  timber  will  consist  of  a larger 
proportion  of  desirable  kinds.  The  present  method  of  cut- 
ting for  export  leaves  practically  all  the  small  and  imma- 
ture timber,  and  where  an  adequate  supply  of  seed  trees 
is  also  included,  the  forest  is  left  in  very  good  condition. 

The  number  of  seed  trees  which  should  be  left  to  the 
acre  will  vary  according  to  the  topography,  the  stand,  and 
the  species.  Naturally,  seed  will  scatter  farther  from  a 
tree  on  the  top  of  a ridge  than  from  one  in  a hollow. 
Fewer  seed  trees  will  be  needed  where  there  is  plenty  of 
young  growth.  Trees  with  light  or  winged  seed,  such  as 
ash,  yellow  poplar  and  sycamore,  will  scatter  their  seed 
farther  than  the  heavy  seeded  oaks  and  hickories,  and  con- 
sequently fewer  seed  trees  per  acre  will  be  necessary.  Two 
or  three  seed  trees  per  acre  of  poplar  or  ash  are  sufficient, 
while  walnut,  hickory  or  white  oak  will  require  more.  It 
is  not  recommended  that  all  the  seed  trees  be  of  one  species ; 
but  a variety  of  the  best  species  should  be  retained  in  order 
to  maintain  the  mixed  character  of  the  forest. 

Old  Helds,  grown  up  to  loblolly  and  shortleaf,  are  a more 
important  part  of  this  type  than  of  any  other,  owing  to  its 
older  settlement  and  larger  percentage  of  cultivated  land, 
though  these  old  fields  are  a common  subtype  of  forest  all 
over  the  region.  Many  areas  that  were  regularly  cultivated 


46 


A STUDY  OF  FOREST  CONDITIONS 


up  to  the  time  of  the  war,  and  which  have  grown  up  to 
pine  since,  are  now  being  cut  over  for  ties. 

Where  ties  are  hewn  it  is  often  the  practice  to  cut  only 
the  larger  trees,  and  so  enough  small  ones  are  left  to 
form  a second  crop  and  seed  up  the  openings.  This  is  the 
best  way  to  cut  this  second  growth  pine,  and  even  where 
a sawmill  is  employed,  the  smaller  trees  can  be  left  with 
profit,  unless  the  owner  means  to  clear  the  land  and  put 
it  in  cultivation.  In  cutting  pine,  loblolly  should  be  favored 
at  the  expense  of  the  shortleaf,  because  of  its  more  rapid 
growth. 

Many  old  fields,  especially  in  the  western  part  of  the 
region,  grow  up  to  hardwoods  only,  because  there  are  no 
seed  trees  of  pine  in  the  neighborhood.  The  better  species 
are  generally  scattered,  but  should  be  encouraged.  Where 
an  occasional  loblolly  pine  occurs,  it  should  be  left  to  grow 
to  help  seed  up  this  area.  Sometimes  black  locust  comes  in 
on  abandoned  areas,  and  it  is  probably  the  most  profitable 
tree  to  grow  on  old  fields  where  the  soil  is  rich  and  deep. 
It  grows  rapidly  and  is  in  great  demand  for  fence  posts. 
After  cutting,  locust  reproduces  itself  rapidly  by  means  of 
suckers  or  sprouts  from  the  roots,  which  come  up  for  con- 
siderable distances  around  the  stump.  For  this  reason, 
cutting  may  begin  with  advantage  just  as  soon  as  there 
are  any  trees  large  enough  to  make  posts.  Increased  cut- 
ting tends  to  increase  the  density  of  the  stand.  Trees 
should  be  cut  during  the  winter  or  early  spring  if  possible, 
and  never  in  late  summer  or  early  fall,  as  early  frosts  will 
kill  the  shoots  and  prevent  reproduction.  Fire  is  exceed- 
ingly destructive  to  black  locust  and  should  be  kept  out 
by  all  means. 

Mississippi  Flood  Plain. — These  lands  are  too  valuable 
to  remain  permanently  in  forest'.  Much  of  the  level  land 
along  the  banks  of  the  Mississippi  River  and  formerly  occu- 
pied by  stands  of  cottonwood  has  already  been  cleared  and  is 
extremely  valuable  for  agriculture.  Movements  are  on  foot 
to  deepen  the  channels  of  the  streams,  clear  them  of  under- 
brush and  drain  large  areas  of  land  which  will  then  become 
productive.  Lumber  companies  are  cutting  away  the  cot- 
tonwood and  other  timbers  along  the  Mississippi  River  and 


OF  SOUTHWESTERN  MISSISSIPPI. 


47 


extending  dummy  lines  into  the  Homochitto  swamp  region. 
When  the  valuable  timber  is  gone,  a parge  per  cent  of  the 
swamp  areas  will  gradually  be  transformed  into  prosperous 
plantations. 

But  for  a long  time  to  come  there  will  be  considerable 
land  on  nearly  every  plantation  that  cannot  be  profitably 
cultivated,  because  it  is  too  difficult  to  drain,  overflows  too 
easily,  or  else  the  owner  has  all  the  cleared  land  he  can 
cultivate  with  the  labor  available.  This  woodland  should 
be  managed  with  as  much  forethought  as  any  other  part 
of  the  plantation. 

The  same  methods  of  cutting  should  be  used  as  in  the 
hardwood  hills  type.  The  retention  of  the  young  immature 
growth,  especially  of  the  valuable  species,  and  the  leaving 
of  seed  trees  where  necessary  should  form  the  basis  of  man- 
agement in  nearly  all  parts  of  this  type.  Ash,  oaks,  pecan, 
cypress  and  sweet  gum  should  be  encouraged  wherever 
conditions  are  suitable  for  their  growth. 

On  this  type  the  lighter  seeds  are  usually  carried  by  the 
overflow  waters,  so  that  the  leaving  of  seed  trees  of  cotton- 
w~ood,  willow  or  sycamore  is  quite  unnecessary.  Oaks,  hick- 
ories and  ash  should  be  left  for  seed  trees  where  these 
species  are  desirable.  Plenty  of  young  growth  should  be 
left  to  form  at  least  a partial  shade,  or  the  weeds  and  vines 
are  likely  to  grow  so  rank  and  dense  after  the  timber  has 
been  removed  that  they  prevent  reproduction. 

Young  stands  of  pure  cottonwood,  however,  seem  to 
demand  a different  treatment.  As  far  as  can  be  determined, 
no  old  stand  is  ever  reseeded  to  cottonwood,  unless  from 
overflow.  Seed  trees,  therefore,  are  useless.  Again,  as 
cottonwood  stands  are  nearly  all  even-aged,  the  smaller 
trees,  with  scarcely  an  exception,  are  badly  suppressed  and 
are  not  worth  saving  for  a future  crop.  In  older  stands, 
however,  there  is  usually  a second  growth  of  sycamore, 
elm,  oak  and  mulberry,  which  should  be  protected  unless 
the  land  is  to  be  cleared  for  agriculture.  Young  cottonwood 
stands,  if  a market  can  be  found  for  cordwood,  should  be 
thinned  by  taking  out  the  smaller  trees,  thus  utilizing  them 
before  they  die,  and  also  giving  room  for  the  larger  trees  to 
develop  rapidly  into  more  merchantable  saw-timber. 


48 


A STUDY  OF  FOREST  CONDITIONS 


River  and  Creek  Bottoms. — Much  of  this  type  has  been 
cleared  and  cultivated  for  many  years,  and  practically  all  of 
it  will  be  cleared  for  agriculture  within  a few  decades,  or  as 
soon  as  the  difficulties  of  drainage  have  been  overcome. 
In  the  meantime,  however,  the  forests  which  are  growing 
on  these  lands  should  be  cared  for  and  made  to  yield  the 
greatest  possible  revenue.  Although  many  years  may  pass 
before  the  land  is  cleared  for  farms,  it  is  doubtful  economy 
to  grow  new  forests  or  consider  the  present  forests  per- 
manent. It  is  desirable  to  make  the  most  of  the  growth 
that  is  already  on  the  ground. 

The  selection  method  of  cutting  should  be  followed  here 
as  in  the  other  hardwood  types,  leaving  as  much  young 
growth  as  possible  on  the  ground  and  taking  out  the  mature 
timber.  What  is  cut  should  be  used  to  the  best  advantage, 
and  the  woods  left  in  such  condition  that  the  remaining  trees 
will  make  the  best  timber  in  the  shortest  possible  time. 
Care  should  be  taken  to  protect  the  young  growth,  especially 
that  of  the  more  valuable  species,  and  to  see  that  trees  are 
not  unnecessarily  felled  on  promising  young  trees  when 
cutting  is  being  carried  on. 

Waste  in  Logging* — Waste  of  timber  in  logging  is 
attributable  to  many  causes,  probably  the  chief  of  which 
are  the  distances  from  market,  labor  conditions  and  meth- 
ods of  purchase.  Much  waste  is  unavoidable  under  present 
conditions,  but  where  it  can  be  avoided,  every  care  should 
be  taken  to  do  so. 

Waste  in  logging  is  of  two  kinds:  (i)  the  incomplete 

utilization  of  the  trees  cut,  and  (2)  the  injury  and  destruc- 
tion of  reproduction  and  trees  that  are  left. 

(1)  The  cutting  of  high  stumps  is  a common  and  very 
wasteful  practice,  and  is  inexcusable  except  where  trees  are 
badly  burnt  or  rotten  at  the  butt.  Stumps  in  the  average 
pine  forest  could  be  cut  down  to  12  or  15  inches,  and  should 
rarely  be  over  18  inches  high. 

Much  merchantable  timber  was  formerly  left  in  the  tops, 
but  owing  to  better  market  conditions  this  waste  is  becom- 

* See  also  extract  No.  398  from  the  Yearbook  of  the  U.  S.  De- 
partment of  Agriculture  for  1905,  entitled  “Waste  in  Logging 
Southern  Yellow  Pine,”  which  can  be  had  on  application  to  the 
Forest  Service. 


OF  SOUTHWESTERN  MISSISSIPPI. 


49 


ing  less  each  year.  However,  young  thrifty  trees  which 
should  be  left  to  grow  are  being  cut  down  for  cross-ties, 
while  knotty  logs  capable  of  making  excellent  ties  are  left 
to  rot  in  the  woods. 

In  many  small  operations,  especially  where  ties  are  being 
cut  from  old  field  pine,  there  is  considerable  waste  in  the 
slab.  Instead  of  getting,  as  in  the  hardwood  regions  far- 
ther north,  an  average  of  io  board  feet  of  siding  per  tie, 
which  is  usually  cut  from  the  best  part  of  the  log,  all  this 
is  often  left  in  the  slab  and  wasted.  The  absurd  conditions 
of  the  market,  which  have  placed  a ban  on  8-foot  lumber,  are 
responsible  for  this  waste.  There  will  undoubtedly  be  a 
modification  in  the  market  requirements  within  a few  years, 
and  timber  owners  will  do  well  to  hold  their  pine  rather 
than  sacrifice  it  as  they  are  doing  now.  In  selling  standard 
timber,  small  owners  should  insist  on  the  least  possible 
amount  of  waste,  not  only  when  they  are  selling  their  timber 
by  the  thousand  board  feet,  but  even  when  they  are  selling 
by  the  acre  or  by  the  boundary. 

(2)  In  the  average  logging  operation  tremendous  in- 
jury is  done  to  the  trees  left  standing  and  to  the  reproduc- 
tion already  started.  Every  care  should  be  taken  to  avoid 
this  as  much  as  possible.  Trees  should  be  felled  in  such  a 
way  that  the  young  trees  are  not  broken  or  crushed,  or 
groups  of  young  growth  destroyed.  If  the  breaking  of 
some  young  trees  is  unavoidable,  those  of  greatest  value 
should  be  saved.  Inasmuch  as  immature  trees  increase 
in  value  with  age,  a group  of  longleaf  thirty  years  old,  for 
example,  should  be  preserved  in  preference  to  one  only  ten 
years  old.  Also,  where  a choice  is  necessary,  a tree  should 
be  felled  into  a young  gum  or  beech  rather  than  into  a 
thrifty  ash  or  yellow  poplar.  Trees  should  be  felled  so  that 
the  tops,  though  left  to  lie  where  felled,  will  not  subse- 
quently be  a menace  from  fire  to  the  remaining  stand ; that 
is,  they  should  be  as  far  away  from  seed  trees  or  groups 
of  young  growth  as  possible.  Where  a steam  skidder  is 
used,  it  should  be  placed  in  such  a position  that  the  logs 
will  be  pulled  over  ground  which  has  comparatively  little 
young  growth.  Guy  chains  for  the  skidding  cable  should 
be  fastened  to  stumps  and  not  to  seed  trees  or  young 
growth. 


50 


A STUDY  OF  FOREST  CONDITIONS 


Fire  Protection  * — Conservative  lumbering  counts  for 
little  unless  the  forest  lands  of  the  State  can  be  protected 
from  fire.  After  lumbering  in  the  longleaf  pine  forests, 
the  ground  is  partly  covered  with  brush,  which  soon  becomes 
so  dry  that  fires  are  easily  started  and  are  extinguished 
with  great  difficulty.  Logging  locomotives  are  largely  re- 
sponsible for  the  first  fire  that  follows  lumbering.  Every 
year  following,  however,  the  ground  is  burned  either 
through  malice  or  through  the  notion  that  it  encourages  a 
better  growth  of  grass.  Pine  reproduction  is  not  given  a 
chance,  even  though  much  of  the  stump  land  region  has 
enough  trees  remaining  to  seed  up  the  ground.  Scrub  oaks, 
more  resistant  to  fire,  form  dense  stands  over  the  stump 
lands.  The  absence  of  pine  reproduction  is  largely  due  to 
this  constant  burning  of  the  area,  although  other  factors 
also  enter  into  the  problem. 

Reproduction  of  loblolly  pine  is  so  much  more  prolific 
and  certain  than  that  of  longleaf  that  damage  by  fire  is  not 
felt  so  seriously  with  this  tree.  However,  the  growth  is 
retarded  and  the  quality  of  the  timber  decreased  by  con- 
stant burning  of  the  ground.  Hardwood  lands  suffer  in 
the  same  way  by  injury  to  reproduction,  sprouts  and  young 
growth  where  fires  are  permitted  to  run. 

Protection  from  fire  is  necessary  at  all  times,  but  es- 
pecially during  and  immediately  following  lumbering  opera- 
tions. The  large  amount  of  inflammable  material,  added  to 
the  ground  cover  by  the  slash,  makes  the  fires  much  more 
severe  and  seriously  endangers  the  seed  trees  and  young 
growth  left  on  the  ground.  Brush  should  be  cleared  away 
around  all  steam  skidders  and  other  engines  and  should 
not  be  left  near  seed  trees  or  other  young  growth.  Logging 
hands  should  be  cautioned  against  throwing  matches  or 
cigarette  stumps  around  in  the  dry  grass  or  leaves.  It 
should  be  generally  understood  that  any  man,  and  all  men  if 
necessary,  employed  on  the  operations  are  expected  to  stop 
work  at  any  time  in  order  to  extinguish  fires.  After  log- 
ging, fire  can  only  be  kept  from  the  large  pine  tracts  by  a 

* Note.  The  prevalence  of  forest  fires  and  the  destruction 
caused  by  them  through  the  longleaf  pine  region  is  dealt  with  in 
Forest  Service  Circular  149,  “Condition  of  Cut  Over  Longleaf  Pine 
Lands  in  Mississippi.” 


OF  SOUTHWESTERN  MISSISSIPPI. 


51 


system  of  patrol,  or  by  the  aid  of  a good  State  law.  Proba- 
bly some  patrol  would  be  needed  for  a while,  even  though  a 
State  fire  law  were  enacted.  A fire  line  around  a tract  or  on 
each  side  of  a railroad  running  through  the  tract  is  a great 
aid  in  preventing  or  extinguishing  fires.  Such  a fire  line  is 
best  made  in  the  pure  longleaf  by  plowing  two  strips  3 or  4 
feet  wide  and  30  feet  apart,  and  then  burning  off  the  mid- 
dle strip  of  unplowed  ground  every  winter. 

It  is  much  easier  and  cheaper  to  prevent  fires  than  to 
extinguish  them  after  they  are  well  started.  Patrol  during 
a very  dry  period  or  through  the  dangeous  months  will 
practically  prevent  serious  fires  and  will  cost  less  than  ex- 
tinguishing one  big  fire.  A scheme  of  co-operation  between 
the  large  timber  owners  and  the  county,  if  it  could  be 
arranged,  would  prove  a cheap  and  most  satisfactory  way 
to  handle  this  important  problem. 

Injury  from  fire  is  not  so  serious  in  the  hardwood  types 
of  this  region  as  in  the  pine  types,  though  much  damage  is 
done  every  year.  There  is  no  sentiment  against  setting  fire 
to  the  woods  or  old  fields,  and  the  landowners  realize  that 
it  is  a most  difficult  and  nearly  impossible  task  to  prevent  it. 
For  the  present,  undoubtedly  the  best  remedy  is  to  create 
a good,  healthy  sentiment  against  fires. 

Protection  from  Stock. — Fire,  although  the  chief  dan- 
ger, is  not  the  only  serious  menace  to  the  forest.  The 
ranging  of  stock,  especially  of  hogs,  does  great  injury  in 
some  places. 

The  question  of  restricting  the  right  to  graze  animals 
in  the  open  woods  is  usually  one  that  solves  itself  with  the 
increase  in  populaion  and  the  general  development  of  a 
region.  Settled  communities  demand  that  animals  shall  be 
enclosed. 

Throughout  the  woodland  region  of  Mississippi,  how- 
ever, it  does  not  yet  seem  necessary  for  farmers  to  keep 
their  cattle  under  fence.  It  would  work  a hardship  on  small 
owners  if  their  cattle  could  not  graze  at  large,  and  no  law 
to  prevent  them  from  making  use  of  the  splendid  growth  of 
grass  in  the  woods  is  yet  needed.  Cattle  do  comparatively 
little  injury  to  pine  reproduction,  and  throughout  the  hard- 
wood region  they  are  usually  kept  within  fences. 


52 


A STUDY  OF  FOREST  CONDITIONS 


When  hogs  range  over  the  woods  in  large  numbers  they 
destroy  considerable  seed  of  different  species,  greatly  hin- 
dering reproduction.  Where  pine  seed  trees  are  scat- 
tered and  seed  is  only  produced  abundantly  once  in  four 
to  eight  years,  which  is  the  case  with  longleaf  pine,  it  is 
readily  seen  that  hogs,  always  on  the  lookout  for  pine  nuts, 
will  seldom  give  them  a chance  to  germinate.  Also,  as 
food  becomes  scarce  late  in  the  winter,  hogs  dig  up  and 
eat  the  roots  of  the  young  pines.  No  hardship  would  be 
inflicted  by  compelling  owners  to  fence  their  hogs,  but 
rather  a real  benefit  to  the  farmer  as  well  as  to  the  timber- 
land  owner  would  result.  In  some  parts  of  the  yellow  pine 
region  hogs  are  not  listed  for  taxes,  because  they  are  con- 
sidered as  practically  valueless  property.  Large  numbers 
of  them  are  swept  away  by  disease  each  year,  and  it  is 
only  in  good  seed  years  that  there  is  mast  enough  to  fatten 
them.  By  taking  the  hogs  off  the  range,  infectious  diseases 
would  be  stamped  out  in  a very  short  time,  and  the  grade 
of  stock  would  gradually  improve.  The  State  should  pass 
a law  compelling  the  fencing  of  hogs.  If  it  fails  to  do  so, 
each  longleaf  pine  county  should  take  advantage  of  the 
present  local  option  law,  which  allows  counties  and  districts 
to  regulate  this  question,  and  prevent  the  promiscuous  graz- 
ing of  hogs  through  the  woods  and  cutover  lands. 

Contract  for  Sale  of  Timber. — Small  private  owners, 
trustees  of  school  lands,  and  others  who  sell  standing  timber 
for  removal,  should  insist  on  the  adoption  of  all  practicable 
precautions  to  insure  the  future  usefulness  of  the  area.  In 
a contract  for  the  sale  of  timber,  the  following  recommen- 
dations and  clauses  are  suggested: 

1.  Describe  the  sale  area  by  legal  subdivisions;  metes 
and  bounds,  or  by  a designated  name. 

2.  Estimate  the  amount  of  material,  preferably  by 
species,  included  in  the  sale. 

3.  Specify  whether  full  or  partial  payments  will  be 
made. 

4.  No  timber  will  be  cut  or  removed  until  it  has  been 
paid  for. 


OF  SOUTHWESTERN  MISSISSIPPI. 


53 


5.  No  timber  will  be  removed  until  it  has  been  scaled, 
measured  or  counted. 

6.  All  merchantable  timber  used  in  buildings,  skidways, 
bridges,  construction  of  roads,  or  other  improvements  will 
be  paid  for  at  the  contract  price,  but  no  charge  will  be 
made  for  material  not  merchantable  under  the  terms  of 
this  agreement  and  not  reserved  for  seed. 

7.  All  cutting  will  be  done  with  a saw  when  pos- 
sible. 

8.  No  unnecessary  damage  will  be  done  to  young 
growth  or  to  trees  left  standing,  and  no  trees  shall  be  left 
lodged  in  the  process  of  felling. 

9.  No  trees  shall  be  turpentined  unless  they  are  to  be 
cut  subsequently. 

10.  The  approximate  minimum  diameter  limit  at  a point 

4^4  feet  from  the  ground  to  which  living  trees^  are  to  be  cut 
is  , but  trees  above  these 

(Limits  for  all  species  involved) 
diameters  may  be  reserved  for  seed  or  protection.  A good 
diameter  limit  at  4^2  feet  from  the  ground  is  15  inches, 
and  in  no  case  should  it  be  below  12  inches. 

11.  Stumps  will  not  be  cut  higher  than  

inches — lower  when  possible — and  will  be  so  cut  as  to  cause 
the  least  possible  waste. 

12.  All  trees  cut  will  be  utilized  to  a diameter  of 

inches  in  the  tops — lower  when  possible  and  the 

log  lengths  so  varied  as  to  make  this  possible. 

13.  All  timber  will  be  cut  and  removed  on  or  before 

and  none  later  than , and  at  least 

(feet,  b.  m.  cords,  etc.) 


will  be  paid  for,  cut  and  removed  on  or  before 

19..,  and  at  least  of  the  re- 

mainder of  the  estimated  amount  during  each  year  of  the 
remaining  period. 

14.  Timber  will  be  scaled  by  the  rule,  or 

counted,  or  measured  as  follows : 


54 


A STUDY  OF  FOREST  CONDITIONS 


15.  During  the  time  that  this  agreement  remains  in 

force, and  all em- 

(I  or  we)  (my  or  our) 

ployees,  subcontractors,  and  employees  of  subcontractors 
will  do  all  in  our  power  to  prevent  and  suppress  fires  upon 
this  sale  area. 

16.  A bond  for  fulfillment  of  contract  should  be  re- 
quired in  the  amount  of  10  per  cent  of  the  purchase  price. 

RECOMMENDATIONS. 

In  Forest  Service  Circular  149,  ‘‘Condition  of  Cutover 
Longleaf  Pine  Lands  in  Mississippi,”  suggestions  are  made 
for  a forest,  and  fire  law  for  the  State.  This  circular  recom- 
mends the  appointment  of  a State  fire  warden,  with  local 
fire  wardens  in  each  county  to  carry  out  the  provisions  of 
the  law,  and  the  acquisition  and  administration  of  lands  by 
the  State  forest  use.  In  addition  to  these  recommenda- 
tions, which  were  preliminary,  it  is  now  strongly  recom- 
mended that  the  State  or  counties  extend  the  operation  of 
the  stock  law,  and  that  the  timbered  school  lands,  which  are 
controlled  by  the  various  counties,  be  managed  according 
to  forestry  principles. 

State  Forester. — Undoubtedly  all  the  States  whose  for- 
ests form  a large  part  of  their  resources,  which  is  the  case 
with  Mississippi,  should  employ  technically  trained  foresters 
to  care  for  these  forests.  The  work  of  a State  Forester  is 
most  effective,  where  he  is  absolutely  free  from  political 
influence,  thus  making  his  tenure  of  office  entirely  dependent 
on  his  fitness  for  the  position  and  the  quality  of  the  results 
obtained.  He  should  be  the  State  Forest  Fire  Warden, 
directing  the  fire-fighting  force  of  the  State,  and  he  should 
manage  and  administer  any  State  forest  land  that  may  be 
acquired  under  the  law,  and  conduct  experiments  in  manage- 
ment and  reforestation.  He  should  make  examinations  of 
private  forest  lands,  if  the  owners  so  desire,  and  give  sug- 
gestions for  their  better  care  and  management.  He  should 
carry  on  an  educational  campaign  throughout  the  State, 
giving  lectures  at  farmers’  institutes  and  other  public  meet- 
ings. By  such  lectures  he  would  be  brought  into  close 
touch  with  the  people  of  the  State,  who  should  be  urged  to 


OF  SOUTHWESTERN  MISSISSIPPI. 


55 


perpetuate  by  wise  use  the  forests  on  all  lands  not  needed 
for  agriculture. 

Fire  Law. — The  fire  law  as  outlined  in  Circular  149 
should  be  carried  out  and  enforced  by  the  county  fire  war- 
dens, under  the  direction  of  the  State  Forester  and  the 
Board  of  Forestry.  These  local  officers  should  be  appointed 
by  the  county  Board  of  Supervisors  with  the  approval  of 
the  State  Forester  and  should  be  paid  out  of  the  county 
funds.  Their  remuneration  at  $2.00  a day,  for  all  days 
actually  engaged  in  extinguishing  fires  or  prosecuting 
offenders,  should  not  exceed  $200.00  per  year,  and  the  ex- 
penses of  extra  help  to  fight  fire  might  vary  from  $100.00 
to  $200.00  more.  The  counties  themselves  depend  so  large- 
ly on  the  timber  lands  and  timber  interests  for  revenue, 
that  money  spent  for  the  protection  of  the  forests  will  be 
an  excellent  investment. 

State  Forests. — Forest  lands,  properly  managed,  are 
among  the  most  profitable  investments  carried  by  many  of 
the  European  States.  In  this  country  several  of  the  States 
have  adopted  the  policy  of  acquiring  and  administering 
forest  land.  The  chief  value  of  State  forests  are  (1)  to 
protect  the  headwaters  and  the  banks  of  important  streams ; 
(2)  to  furnish  a reserve  source  of  timber  or  fuel  supply  for 
the  citizens  of  the  State;  (3)  to  serve  as  object  lessons  of 
practical  methods  of  forest  management  and  forest  regen- 
eration. Lands  for  this  purpose  may  be  obtained  by  pur- 
chase or  by  forfeiture.  Some  States  provide  that  land  re- 
verting to  the  State  for  taxes  shall,  if  suitable,  be  held  for 
forest  purposes.  It  is  strongly  recommended  that  this  be 
done  in  Mississippi.  From  time  to  time,  land  in  almost 
every  county  reverts  to  the  State  for  taxes.  Such  tax  land 
is  recorded  in  the  books  of  the  State  Land  Commissioner 
at  Jackson.  After  two  years  it  may  be  sold  by  the  sheriffs 
of  the  respective  counties.  Before  being  put  up  for  sale 
a list  of  the  tracts  of  such  land  should  be  submitted  to  the 
State  Forester,  who  should,  if  the  location  and  amount  jus- 
tify, examine  them  and  report  to  the  State  Board  of  For- 
estry as  to  their  suitability  for  State  forest  purposes.  If 
more  suitable  for  agricultural  purposes,  they  should  be  put 
up  for  sale,  but  if  not,  they  should  be  retained  by  the  State 


56 


A STUDY  OF  FOREST  CONDITIONS 


for  forest  purposes.  Tax  land  sells  for  about  $1.25  per  acre. 
Usually  the  timber  has  been  cut  off,  and  the  land  is  seldom 
very  desirable  for  agricultural  purposes.  Under  State  own- 
ership and  protection  these  lands  should  constantly  increase 
in  value  and  produce  timber  crops  for  the  benefit  of  future 
generations.  They  should  be  forever  held  by  the  State  and 
so  distributed  as  not  to  be  a burden  upon  any  one  county. 

School  Lands. — The  sixteenth  section  in  each  township 
was  originally  given  by  the  Federal  Government  to  the 
State,  to  be  held  by  it  as  a source  of  perpetual  revenue  for 
the  benefit  of  the  public  schools  of  the  county  in  which  the 
section  is  situated.  These  school  sections  are  controlled  and 
administered  by  the  local  authorities,  and  all  revenues  are 
devoted  to  the  schools  of  the  township  or  districts  in  which 
the  sections  lie.  They  can  be  divided  into  two  classes : ( 1 ) 

Those  that  have  been  disposed  of  on  long  term  leases,  or 
(2)  those  that  are  under  the  direct  control  of  the  county. 

During  the  middle  of  the  last  century  many  of  these 
sections  were  leased  for  ninety-nine  years  or  other  long 
periods.  As  a rule  the  leases  are  now  held  by  lumbermen 
who  have  either  cut  off  the  timber,  or  intend  to  do  so.  When 
cutover  the  land  is  neglected,  and  when  the  leases  expire,  a 
large  part  of  the  land  will  come  back  to  the  State  without 
any  possibility  of  its  yielding  an  income  to  the  schools  for 
an  indefinite  time.  In  the  future,  therefore,  in  lumbering 
the  school  lands,  the  State  should  insist  that  they  be  kept  in 
a productive  condition,  so  that  the  object  of  the  lands,  to 
provide  a revenue  for  the  schools,  is  not  defeated.  This 
can  be  accomplished  by  imposing  certain  restrictions  on  the 
cutting,  such  as  are  outlined  under  the  chapter  on  “Man- 
agement.” 

The  school  sections  which  have  not  been  leased  for  long 
periods  are  controlled  by  the  township  trustees  and  the 
County  Superintendent  of  Education.  They  should  either 
be  leased  for  agricultural  purposes  at  an  annual  rental,  or  if 
timbered,  the  standing  timber  should  be  sold  and  removed. 
When  a sale  of  timber  is  made,  a contract  should  be  entered 
into  with  the  purchaser  similar  to  that  previously  suggested, 
in  order  to  prevent  the  destruction  of  young  growth  and 
preserve  the  yielding  power  of  the  forest. 


FOREST  CONDITIONS  of  MISSISSIPPI 

SOUTHWESTERN  COUNTIES  .. 1 

( ( 

J s HOLMES  and  J.  H FOSTER,  JANUARY,  1908 


t/  Ctdars 


RAYMOND 


LEGEND 


Stigen 


Pure  Longleaf  Type 
Longleaf  Hills. 

Hardwood  Hills. 

Mississippi  Flood  Plain 
River  Bottoms 
Area  containing  the  largest 
bodies  of  Pine  Timber 


Florence 


Nonathehaw 


MENDENHALL 


Weathcnby 


Merit 


Crystal  Springs 


ST  JOSEPH 


Pinota 


Russum 


HAZLEHURST  £ 


T t llmat 


Coldnuii 


Format 


alerproo) 


Stoningto  t 


L'Af%ent\ 


H arriston 


Mabel 


McNair 


Whitesand 


PRENTISS 


BROOKHAVEN 


NATCHEZ 


DAVIS 


Moruille 


Chitlo 


VernCf, 


COLOMBIA  *> 


Auburn 


Expose 

<'  Fortenberry 


Arnot 


MAGNOLI 


Centerville 


Turnbull 


Mississippi 

State  Geological  Survey 


E.  N.  LOWE,  DIRECTOR. 


BULLETIN  NO.  5 


•m-| 

5 


A STUDY  OF 


FOREST  CONDITIONS 


i 

{ 

L, 


OF 


Southwestern  Mississippi 


BY 


J.  S.  HOLMES,  Forest  Examiner 

> J.  H.  FOSTER,  Forest  Assistant 

► — H4  — H4  — ■»  H*  M — » — ♦♦♦  — ~ * M «— * W — • 4M  — ~ *4  ♦ «— » ♦ H — W * ♦»* -J 


BRANDON-NA8HVILL8 


*W.  ' .V,  ;v,  1 >P' 


